Yoga and Its Impact on Emotional Intelligence - Revision history

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← Older revision		Revision as of 17:06, 2 September 2022
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	[[Category:Education Series]]		[[Category:Education Series]]
	<references />		<references />
		+	[[Category:Darshanas]]
		+	[[Category:Yoga]]

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 == Conclusions ==
-Our study has been successful in establishing the usefulness of the yoga framework for the enhancement of the emotional intelligence of an employee. However, the key to success lies in giving employees total knowledge of yogadboth theory and practicedin a systematic manner. If the trainer himself is not perfect, the results may vary. Moreover in the current study we have not attempted to analyse whether the age profile has an impact. Conducting a larger study with separate samples for various age profiles may give more insights.
+This study has established the usefulness of the yoga framework for the enhancement of the emotional intelligence of an employee. However, the key to success lies in giving employees total knowledge of yoga- both theory and practice -in a systematic manner. If the trainer himself / herself is not perfect, the results may vary. Moreover in the current study we have not attempted to analyse whether the age profile has an impact. Conducting a larger study with separate samples for various age profiles may give more insights<ref name=":1" />.
-The results obtained in this study point to the need to conduct similar experiments in other organisational settings and with a larger sample size. As in the case of similar experiments, different instruments for measuring EI may be
+The study also opens up debates on some of the larger issues related to the theme of yoga, managerial effectiveness and the use of statistical tools in empirical study. At a philosophical level, the yoga way of life seeks to unite the individual consciousness with universal consciousness. At the empirical level, the efficacy of scientific scrutiny needs to be tested by conducting more studies. Also it may call for handling more qualitative data and experiential data than quantitative data. Developing better research methodologies to handle these unique aspects is another area that may require further work in the future<ref name=":1" />.
 ==References==

@@ Line 95: / Line 95: @@
 In the validity test conducted, the pre-experiment result of the 33-item scale of EI had a Chronbach’s alpha of 0.84 while that of the post-study data of EI showed alpha of 0.85. The average EI score for the yoga group and the control group was 5.50 and 5.61 respectively before the experiment. The average EI score after the experiment for the yoga group and the control group was 5.97 and 5.55 respectively. In the paired t-test of the pre-study and post-study data, EI showed significant enhancement in the yoga group, but not in the physical exercise group. The results further showed that while the difference in the average EI between the yoga group and the physical exercise group was not significant prior to the experiment (thus supporting random choice of samples), the same was statistically significant at the end of the experiment<ref name=":1" />.
-According to Swami Rama et al. (1976), yoga psychology integrates the behavioural and introspective approaches to growth. It provides a perspective from which one can become disengaged from involvement in the unhappy personalities one has created for oneself and in the negative role one has adopted. It moves quickly to a training
+Currently yoga methods are taught in India and several Western countries in a more general platform as a means to de-stress individuals and improve personal satisfaction. It would be beneficial to provide systematic exposure to the knowledge enshrined in the texts emphasizing the yoga way of life to all managerial cadres of companies. This study shows that such an initiative would help them personally as well as professionally. They can become more self-aware and self-regulated individuals, with a proper perspective of life and various relationships. In the Indian context, the assimilation of this knowledge could be better and easier, since Indians would probably have some prior exposure to these concepts. Psychological counselling sessions could include a significant component of yoga practices to improve the efficacy of such interventions<ref name=":1" />.
 ==References==

@@ Line 73: / Line 73: @@
 Yoga is defined as ‘skill in action’ (yogah karmasu kau- salam) in the Bhagavad Gita (Swami Tapasyananda, 1984<ref name=":11" />, Chapter 2, Shloka 50) which discusses yoga explicitly, and further states that one must strive for the state of yoga where ‘One (is) endowed with unperturbed evenness of mind (that) abandons the effects of both good and bad actions’ even in this world. The original shloka is as follows: <blockquote>बुद्धियुक्तो जहातीह उभे सुकृतदुष्कृते।</blockquote><blockquote>तस्माद्योगाय युज्यस्व योगः कर्मसु कौशलम्।।2.50।।</blockquote><blockquote>Buddhiyukto jahati’ha ubhe sukrta-duskrte </blockquote><blockquote>Tasmad yogaya yujyasva yogah karmasu kausalam. 2.50</blockquote>This shloka clearly suggests that yoga can be applied to day-to-day living, which seems largely utilitarian. Sri Aurobindo<ref name=":6" />, stating the power of yoga, reiterates that right knowledge becomes the infallible source of right action (yohgah karmasu kaushalam) (p 201). To quote Sri Aurobindo fully, ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the Yogic power, the greater the force in action. In this calm the right knowledge comes. The activity of the mind must cease, the chitta be purified, a silence falls upon the restlessness of prakriti; then in that calm, in that voiceless stillness, illumination comes upon the mind, error begins to fade away.clarity establishes itself in the higher stratum of the consciousness, compelling peace and joy in the lower. Right knowledge becomes the infallible source of right action. Yohgah karmasu kaushalam.’ (p 201).
-In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realisational vs utilitarian divide is artificial. A truly realisational objective has to be all- comprehensive.
+In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realizational vs utilitarian divide is artificial. A truly realizational objective has to be all- comprehensive.
 == Research Objective and Methodology ==
@@ Line 91: / Line 91: @@
 == Results and implications ==
-Statistical analysis of the data was done using the SPSS. The sample profile given in Exhibit 3 indicates that 80% and 86% of the participants from the yoga group and the control group respectively were from the age group of 21e50, while the rest were above 50. Similarly, 20% of the yoga group and 17% of the control group were from the top management (i.e. deputy general manager and above), while 57% of the yoga group and 63% of the control group were from the line level managers (deputy managers and officers).
+Statistical analysis of the data was done using the SPSS. The sample profile indicates that 80% and 86% of the participants from the yoga group and the control group respectively were from the age group of 21-50, while the rest were above 50. Similarly, 20% of the yoga group and 17% of the control group were from the top management (i.e. deputy general manager and above), while 57% of the yoga group and 63% of the control group were from the line level managers (deputy managers and officers)<ref name=":1" />.
-In the validity test conducted, the pre-experiment result of the 33-item scale of EI had a Chronbach’s alpha of 0.84 while that of the post-study data of EI showed alpha of 0.85. The average EI score for the yoga group and the control group was 5.50 and 5.61 respectively before the experiment. The average EI score after the experiment for the yoga group and the control group was 5.97 and 5.55 respectively (Exhibit 5). In the paired t-test of the pre- and post- study data, EI showed significant enhancement in the yoga group (p Z 0.005), but not in the physical exercise group (Exhibit 6). The results further showed that while the difference in the average EI between the yoga group and the physical exercise group was not significant prior to the experiment (thus supporting random choice of samples), the same was statistically significant at the end of the experiment with p Z 0.001 (Exhibit 7).
+In the validity test conducted, the pre-experiment result of the 33-item scale of EI had a Chronbach’s alpha of 0.84 while that of the post-study data of EI showed alpha of 0.85. The average EI score for the yoga group and the control group was 5.50 and 5.61 respectively before the experiment. The average EI score after the experiment for the yoga group and the control group was 5.97 and 5.55 respectively. In the paired t-test of the pre-study and post-study data, EI showed significant enhancement in the yoga group, but not in the physical exercise group. The results further showed that while the difference in the average EI between the yoga group and the physical exercise group was not significant prior to the experiment (thus supporting random choice of samples), the same was statistically significant at the end of the experiment<ref name=":1" />.
-According to Swami Rama et al. (1976), yoga psychology integrates the behavioural and introspective approaches to growth. It provides a perspective from which one can become disengaged from involvement in the unhappy personalities one has created for oneself and in the nega- tive role one has adopted. It moves quickly to a training
+According to Swami Rama et al. (1976), yoga psychology integrates the behavioural and introspective approaches to growth. It provides a perspective from which one can become disengaged from involvement in the unhappy personalities one has created for oneself and in the negative role one has adopted. It moves quickly to a training
 ==References==

@@ Line 82: / Line 82: @@
 == Yoga way of life and emotional intelligence: empirical study ==
-The present study was conducted in a manufacturing company in the state of Gujarat in western India, in one of the units manufacturing viscose staple fibre (VSF). The organisation is a flagship company of a large conglomerate, which ranks among India’s largest private sector companies. The VSF plant where this study was conducted was set up in 1996. The unit where this study was conducted has about 120 people in the managerial cadre and more than 1000 in the workers’ category. The average total work experience of the sample group is 16.11 years. Most of the employees reside in the township of the company, which made it easy to conduct the intervention of yoga.
+The present study was conducted in a manufacturing company in the state of Gujarat in western India, in one of the units manufacturing viscose staple fibre (VSF). The organisation is a flagship company of a large conglomerate, which ranks among India’s largest private sector companies. The VSF plant where this study was conducted was set up in 1996. The unit where this study was conducted has about 120 people in the managerial cadre and more than 1000 in the workers’ category. The average total work experience of the sample group is 16.11 years. Most of the employees reside in the township of the company, which made it easy to conduct the intervention of yoga. The salient aspects of the study methodology are summarized below<ref name=":1" />:
-The salient aspects of the study methodology are summarised below:
+The managers of the company were given the option of participating in this study after the purpose and the modality of this experiment were explained to them. One of the expectations was regularity of attendance for the theory and practice sessions of the proposed study. Written consent for participating in the experiment was obtained. Those who agreed to participate in the study were divided into two equal groups of 42 each; Group 1 was designated as the yoga group and group 2 as the physical exercise group, which was the control group for this experiment.   The yoga group was given 30 hours of yoga practice (75 minutes every day) and 25 hours of theory lectures on the philosophy of yoga spread over six weeks. The theory lectures were given by the first author of this article and included topics such as definitions of the yoga way of life, implications of the four types of yoga (Raja yoga, Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga) on life, analysis of the aspects of true happiness in life, Ashtanga yoga steps and the central theme of universality of consciousness as propounded in these texts.The practice sessions for the elements of yoga which included asanas, pranayama and relaxation were conducted by a well-trained yoga instructor<ref name=":1" />.
- The managers of the company were given the option of participating in this study after the purpose and the modality of this experiment were explained to them. One of the expectations was regularity of attendance for the theory and practice sessions of the proposed study. Written consent for participating in the experiment was obtained.   Those who agreed to participate in the study were divided into two equal groups of 42 each; Group 1 was designated as the yoga group and group 2 as the physical exercise group, which was the control group for this experiment.   The yoga group was given 30 hours of yoga practice (75 minutes every day) and 25 hours of theory lectures on the philosophy of yoga spread over six weeks. The theory lectures were given by the first author of this article and included topics such as definitions of the yoga way of life, implications of the four types of yoga (Raja yoga, Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga) on life, analysis of the aspects of true happiness in life, Ashtanga yoga steps and the central theme of universality of consciousness as propounded in these texts.
+The control group was also given training in normal physical workout for an equal number of hours, and lectures on the success factors in life based on modern thought (that seeks to achieve success by systematic control of factors within one’s area of influence). This was necessary in order to obviate the possibility of the Hawthorne effect on the control group. The topics for theory given to this group included success and happiness, the importance of attitude, self-image, good relationship with others, goal setting, the power of the subconscious mind, communication, motivation and leadership. The practice given to this group included fast exercises such as spot jogging, bending, body rotation, hand and leg movements etc<ref name=":1" />.
-The practice sessions for the elements of yoga which included asanas, pranayama and relaxation were con- ducted by a well-trained yoga instructor.   The control group was also given training in normal physical workout for an equal number of hours, and lectures on the success factors in life based on modern thought (that seeks to achieve success by systematic control of factors within one’s area of influence). This was necessary in order to obviate the possibility of the Hawthorne effect on the control group. The topics for theory given to this group included success and happi- ness, the importance of attitude, self-image, good relationship with others, goal setting, the power of the subconscious mind, communication, motivation and leadership. The practice given to this group included fast exercises such as spot jogging, bending, body rotation, hand and leg movements etc.   In order to test the hypothesis, EI was measured for both the groups, before and after the study, with the help of a standard self-reported questionnaire. In addition, measurements of certain physical parameters such as weight, body mass index, blood pressure, and blood sugar were taken for all, before and after the study.   The required data was taken before the commence- ment of the study on 17th September, 2007. The intervention to both the groups was simultaneously done between 18th September and 24th October, 2007. The post-study measurement was done on 24th October, 2007.   Out of the total of 42 in both groups, there were some who did not attend all the theory and practice classes on several days, and hence only the top 30 (in terms of regularity) were included for both groups in the final sample for the analysis. This came to a minimum attendance figure of 65% approximately for both groups. The profile of this group is summarised in Exhibit 3.
+In order to test the hypothesis, EI was measured for both the groups, before and after the study, with the help of a standard self-reported questionnaire. In addition, measurements of certain physical parameters such as weight, body mass index, blood pressure, and blood sugar were taken for all, before and after the study. The required data was taken before the commencement of the study on 17th September, 2007. The intervention to both the groups was simultaneously done between 18th September and 24th October, 2007. The post-study measurement was done on 24th October, 2007. Out of the total of 42 in both groups, there were some who did not attend all the theory and practice classes on several days, and hence only the top 30 (in terms of regularity) were included for both groups in the final sample for the analysis. This came to a minimum attendance figure of 65% approximately for both groups. In this experiment rigorous training of 55 hours spread over 6 weeks was organised for the yoga group to instill all these five aspects in the experiment group<ref name=":1" />.
 Statistical analysis of the data was done using the SPSS. The sample profile given in Exhibit 3 indicates that 80% and 86% of the participants from the yoga group and the control group respectively were from the age group of 21e50, while the rest were above 50. Similarly, 20% of the yoga group and 17% of the control group were from the top management (i.e. deputy general manager and above), while 57% of the yoga group and 63% of the control group were from the line level managers (deputy managers and officers).

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:09, 12 April 2020
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	In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realisational vs utilitarian divide is artificial. A truly realisational objective has to be all- comprehensive.		In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realisational vs utilitarian divide is artificial. A truly realisational objective has to be all- comprehensive.
		+
		+	== Research Objective and Methodology ==
		+	Hypothesis
		+
		+	So far no systematic attempt has been made to conduct a controlled study to identify the impact of adopting the yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence (EI) of managers. We would therefore like to study the relation- ship between them by hypothesising the relationship between the yoga way of life and its impact on the EI of managers in a business organisation.
		+
		+	Goleman (2000) opines that far too many training pro- grammes intended to build leadership skills, including EI, are ineffective because they focus on the wrong part of the brain.
		+
		+	Emotional intelligence is born largely in the neuro- transmitters of the brain’s limbic system, which governs feelings, impulses, and drives. Research indicates that the limbic system learns best through motivation, extended practice, and feedback. On the other hand, the neocortex, which governs analytical and technical ability, grasps concepts and logic. It is the part of the brain that figures
		+
		+	also the part of the brain mistakenly targeted by most training programmes aimed at enhancing EI. Goleman (2000), quoting his research with the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence, maintains that organisational programmes which take a neocortical approach can even have a negative impact on job performance.
		+
		+	We propose a null hypothesis of no impact of yoga way of life on the EI of managers.
		+
		+	Constructs for measurement of emotional intelligence
		+
		+	The scale used for this research was the Self-Reported EI Scale (SREIS) (Schutte et al., 1998), which was developed to reflect Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) original ability model of EI and was validated in relation to dimensions of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995) as well as the characteristics usually identified as more relevant to trait models of EI (Goleman, 1995) including alexithymia, optimism and impulse control. This 33-item EI scale assesses multiple aspects of EI including appraisal and expression of emotions, regulation of emotion and utilisation of emotion. Participants rated the extent to which they agreed with each item on 7-point Likert type scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The SREIS measure is reported to have good internal consistency and test-retest reliability (Schutte et al., 1998), and has demonstrated predictive validity.
		+
		+	There are other scales available to measure the EI con- structethe Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS), and a more recent version of this measure viz the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), developed to measure the ability to monitor, discriminate and manage emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002); the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) to measure psychological well-being and adaptation proposed by Kemp et al. (2005), and the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) for measuring social and emotional competency in the workplace (Goleman, 1995, 1998). MSCEIT was developed as an ability- or performance- based measure of the EI construct. On the other hand, other measures such as the EQ-i or ECI are self-report measures which may reflect ‘perceived’ EI, rather than actual capacity. While the debate on the best way to measure EI continues, some researchers have also argued that the different conceptualisations and measurements of this construct are more complementary than contradic- tory, and that most models and measures of EI share some common elements, including the capacity to perceive and regulate emotions in oneself as well as in others (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000; Emmerling & Goleman, 2003; Gole- man, 2001; Palmer, 2003).
		+
		+	Some researchers maintain that self-report question- naires are subject to response bias which may obscure findings concerning the construct of interest (Moorman & Podsakoff, 1992). Individuals who are required to complete self-report questionnaires to apply for or keep a position, may consciously or unconsciously provide answers that are socially desirable (James & Mazerolle, 2002). Therefore,
		+
		+	the way in which individuals respond on self-report questionnaires may be a potential source of inaccuracy (Paulhus & Reid, 1991), which may produce negative consequences for organisations. Self-report measures of EI also have the inherent propensity to be susceptible to socially desirable responding.
		+
		+	Downey, Godfrey, Hansen, & Stough, (2006) observe a weak relationship between EI and social desirability (SD). Social desirability was experimentally manipulated by examining the relationship between EI and SD in two groups. The first group (n Z 34) completed the question- naires anonymously and were told that no feedback would be provided. The second group of participants (n Z 45) were informed that they would receive detailed feedback about their EI. Emotional intelligence did not significantly differ between the two feedback conditions. The results indicated that there is no significant or substantial rela- tionship between self-report EI and SD. In view of this finding our use of self-report questionnaires may not distort the findings of our study significantly.
		+
		+	Yoga way of life and emotional intelligence: empirical study
		+
		+	The present study was conducted in a manufacturing company in the state of Gujarat in western India, in one of the units manufacturing viscose staple fibre (VSF). The organisation is a flagship company of a large conglomerate, which ranks among India’s largest private sector companies. The VSF plant where this study was conducted was set up in 1996. The unit where this study was conducted has about 120 people in the managerial cadre and more than 1000 in the workers’ category. The average total work experience of the sample group is 16.11 years. Most of the employees reside in the township of the company, which made it easy to conduct the intervention of yoga.
		+
		+	The salient aspects of the study methodology are sum- marised below:
		+
		+	The managers of the company were given the option of participating in this study after the purpose and the modality of this experiment were explained to them. One of the expectations was regularity of attendance for the theory and practice sessions of the proposed study. Written consent for participating in the experi- ment was obtained. Those who agreed to participate in the study were divided into two equal groups of 42 each; Group 1 was designated as the yoga group and group 2 as the phys- ical exercise group, which was the control group for this experiment. The yoga group was given 30 hours of yoga practice (75 minutes every day) and 25 hours of theory lectures on the philosophy of yoga spread over six weeks. The theory lectures were given by the first author of this article and included topics such as definitions of the yoga way of life, implications of the four types of yoga (Raja yoga, Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga) on life, analysis of the aspects of true happiness in life, Ashtanga yoga steps and the central theme of univer- sality of consciousness as propounded in these texts.
		+
		+	Impact of adoption of yoga way of life 37
		+
		+	The practice sessions for the elements of yoga which included asanas, pranayama and relaxation were con- ducted by a well-trained yoga instructor. The control group was also given training in normal physical workout for an equal number of hours, and lectures on the success factors in life based on modern thought (that seeks to achieve success by systematic control of factors within one’s area of influence). This was necessary in order to obviate the possibility of the Hawthorne effect on the control group. The topics for theory given to this group included success and happi- ness, the importance of attitude, self-image, good relationship with others, goal setting, the power of the subconscious mind, communication, motivation and leadership. The practice given to this group included fast exercises such as spot jogging, bending, body rotation, hand and leg movements etc. In order to test the hypothesis, EI was measured for both the groups, before and after the study, with the help of a standard self-reported questionnaire. In addition, measurements of certain physical parameters such as weight, body mass index, blood pressure, and blood sugar were taken for all, before and after the study. The required data was taken before the commence- ment of the study on 17th September, 2007. The intervention to both the groups was simultaneously done between 18th September and 24th October, 2007. The post-study measurement was done on 24th October, 2007. Out of the total of 42 in both groups, there were some who did not attend all the theory and practice classes on several days, and hence only the top 30 (in terms of regularity) were included for both groups in the final sample for the analysis. This came to a minimum attendance figure of 65% approximately for both groups. The profile of this group is summarised in Exhibit 3.
		+
		+	Exhibit 4 schematically shows the study methodology and the group composition.
		+
		+	As mentioned earlier, yoga should not be equated with asana practice alone. It encompasses a) a moral code of conduct (as given in yama and niyama), b) physical practices (such as asana and pranayama), c) the development of a deep rooted trust in God’s justice system (Bhakti yoga), d) the adoption of the attitude of putting in one’s best in any piece of work without worrying about the possibility of adverse results (Karma yoga), and e) meditation on the nature of self.
		+
		+	In this experiment rigorous training of 55 hours spread over 6 weeks was organised for the yoga group to instil all these five aspects in the experiment group.
		+
		+	Results and implications
		+
		+	Statistical analysis of the data was done using the SPSS. The sample profile given in Exhibit 3 indicates that 80% and 86% of the participants from the yoga group and the control group respectively were from the age group of 21e50, while the rest were above 50. Similarly, 20% of the yoga group and 17% of the control group were from the top management (i.e. deputy general manager and above), while 57% of the yoga group and 63% of the control group were from the line level managers (deputy managers and officers).
		+
		+	In the validity test conducted, the pre-experiment result of the 33-item scale of EI had a Chronbach’s alpha of 0.84 while that of the post-study data of EI showed alpha of 0.85. The average EI score for the yoga group and the control group was 5.50 and 5.61 respectively before the experiment. The average EI score after the experiment for the yoga group and the control group was 5.97 and 5.55 respectively (Exhibit 5). In the paired t-test of the pre- and post- study data, EI showed significant enhancement in the yoga group (p Z 0.005), but not in the physical exercise group (Exhibit 6). The results further showed that while the difference in the average EI between the yoga group and the physical exercise group was not significant prior to the experiment (thus supporting random choice of samples), the same was statistically significant at the end of the experiment with p Z 0.001 (Exhibit 7).
		+
		+	According to Swami Rama et al. (1976), yoga psychology integrates the behavioural and introspective approaches to growth. It provides a perspective from which one can become disengaged from involvement in the unhappy personalities one has created for oneself and in the nega- tive role one has adopted. It moves quickly to a training

	==References==		==References==

@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 An analysis of the work of several religious and other scholars provides a basis to conclude that the yoga way of life significantly impacts leadership traits and improves EI and EC. Swami Vivekananda averred that the highest man is calm, silent and unknown<ref>Swami Vivekananda. (2006). Teachings of Swami Vivekananda. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.</ref>. The highest person as a leader is calm in order to understand situations, and to think and select the best option for his/her followers’ development. (S)he is silent in order to listen to himself/herself and to his/her subordinates, to control his/her prejudices and conditioning, and to meet others’ hearts. Finally, the leader chooses to remain unknown in order to be free from possible egotistic benefits. According to Sri Aurobindo (in<ref name=":6" />), ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the yogic power, the greater the force in action’ (p 201).
-According to Swami Tapasyananda<ref>Swami Tapasyananda. (1984). Srimad Bhagvad Gita e Scripture of mankind. Ramkrishna Vedant Centre</ref> (1984), man is an integrated whole, his mind being a complex of feeling (emotions), will and intellect. In the four spiritual disciplines (i.e. the four types of yoga - Raja, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana), one of these dominates, while the others, though subordinate, complete the discipline. This is the integrated yoga of the Bhagavad Gita. Swami Vivekananda too, in his interpretation of Vedanta, gives an equal place to all the four yogas<ref name=":1" />.
+According to Swami Tapasyananda<ref name=":11">Swami Tapasyananda. (1984). Srimad Bhagvad Gita e Scripture of mankind. Ramkrishna Vedant Centre</ref> (1984), man is an integrated whole, his mind being a complex of feeling (emotions), will and intellect. In the four spiritual disciplines (i.e. the four types of yoga - Raja, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana), one of these dominates, while the others, though subordinate, complete the discipline. This is the integrated yoga of the Bhagavad Gita. Swami Vivekananda too, in his interpretation of Vedanta, gives an equal place to all the four yogas<ref name=":1" />.
 The role of yoga in the development of impersonality or the spiritual personality has been well explained by Sri Aurobindo<ref name=":8">Sri Aurobindo. (1942). Essays on the Gita, Vol. 13. Calcutta: Arya Publishing House.</ref> (1942) in his classic work, Essays on the Gita. According to Sri Aurobindo, yoga and knowledge are the two wings of the soul’s ascent. He states, ‘By yoga is meant union through divine works done without desire, with equality of soul to all things and all men, as a sacrifice to the Supreme, while knowledge is that on which this desirelessness, this equality, this power of sacrifices is founded’ (p 191).
@@ Line 63: / Line 63: @@
 Most of the work available on the subject of the impact of yoga on work life/management centers around the impact of transcendental meditation (TM) on various aspects of management. Transcendental meditation is the skill of effortlessly minimizing mental activity so that the body settles into a state of rest deeper than deep sleep while the mind becomes clear and alert (Orme-Johnson, Zimmerman, & Hawkins, 1992<ref name=":10">Orme-Johnson, D. W., Zimmerman, E., & Hawkins, M. (1992). Maharishi’s vedic psychology: The science of the cosmic psyche. In H. S. R. Kao, & Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.), Asian perspectives on psychology (pp. 282).</ref>). A review of over 500 experimental studies conducted in over 200 Universities in 33 countries<ref name=":10" /> revealed that TM helps expand consciousness, decrease oxygen intake and stress level, increase basal skin resistance and coherence in the electro encephalo gram (EEG) and virtually suspends breathing up to 1 minute.
-At the University of Texas, Orme-Johnson et al. (1992)<ref name=":10" /> showed that mediators display a greater physiological equilibrium than non-meditators. They also showed that meditators maintain this equilibrium under stress more effectively than non-meditators. Frew (1974)<ref>Frew, D. (1974). Transcendental meditation and productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 17(2), 362.</ref> completed a study that concludes that TM increases individual productivity. Frew found that meditators show increased job satisfaction, a decreased desire to change jobs, better performance, and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers.
+At the University of Texas, Orme-Johnson et al. (1992)<ref name=":10" /> showed that meditators display a greater physiological equilibrium than non-meditators. They also showed that meditators maintain this equilibrium under stress more effectively than non-meditators. Frew (1974)<ref>Frew, D. (1974). Transcendental meditation and productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 17(2), 362.</ref> completed a study that concludes that TM increases individual productivity. Frew found that meditators show increased job satisfaction, a decreased desire to change jobs, better performance, and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers.
-Findings on the TM technique relevant to organisational performance include improved cognitive performance (see Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins, 2005 for a recent summary of studies<ref>Orme-Johnson, D. W., Alexander, C. N., & Hawkins, M. A. (2005). Critique of the national research council’s report on meditation. (Special issue). Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Applications of Maharishi Vedic Science, 17(1), 383e414.</ref>), increased self-esteem and higher levels of self-actualization and development (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991), and more effective mana- gerial performance (Torbert, 1987). Previous case studies suggest that large proportions of organisation members practising the TM technique contribute to improvements in organisational performance (Schmidt-Wilk, Alexander, & Swanson, 1996).
+Findings on the TM technique relevant to organisational performance include improved cognitive performance (see Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins, 2005 for a recent summary of studies<ref>Orme-Johnson, D. W., Alexander, C. N., & Hawkins, M. A. (2005). Critique of the national research council’s report on meditation. (Special issue). Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Applications of Maharishi Vedic Science, 17(1), 383e414.</ref>), increased self-esteem and higher levels of self-actualization and development (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991<ref>Alexander, C. N., Rainforth, M. V., & Gelderloos, P. (1991). Transcendental meditation, self-actualization and psychological health: A conceptual overview and statistical meta-analysis. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6(5), 189e247.</ref>), and more effective managerial performance (Torbert, 1987<ref>Torbert, W. R. (1987). Managing the corporate dream: Restructuring for long term success. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.</ref>). Previous case studies suggest that large proportions of organisation members practising the TM technique contribute to improvements in organisational performance (Schmidt-Wilk, Alexander, & Swanson, 1996<ref>Schmidt-Wilk, J., Alexander, C. N., & Swanson, G. C. (1996). Developing consciousness in organizations: The transcendental meditation program in business. Journal of Business and Psychology, 10(4), 429e444.</ref>).
-Parde and Naidu (1992) report empirical evidence to show that people with a strong orientation to working sincerely without being preoccupied with the outcome experience less work-related stress. Misra (1989) found that effort orientation rather than concern for outcome leads to greater intrinsic satisfaction. Chakraborty (1987, 1993) provides experimental evidence that practising yoga, meditating, controlling breathing and stilling the turbulent mind can enable workers and managers to purify their mind and make it spiritual, expand their self to include others around them, and help them grow and transform them- selves without expecting anything in return.
+Parde and Naidu (1992)<ref>Parde, N., & Naidu, R. K. (1992). Anasakti and health: A study of non-attachment. Psychology and Developing Societies, 4(1), 89e104.</ref> report empirical evidence to show that people with a strong orientation to working sincerely without being preoccupied with the outcome experience less work-related stress. Misra (1989)<ref>Misra, G. (1989). Intrinsic motivation extrinsic reward and performance. Indian Education Review, 24(17), 25.</ref> found that effort orientation rather than concern for outcome leads to greater intrinsic satisfaction. Chakraborty (1987, 1993)<ref>Chakraborty, S. K. (1987). Managerial effectiveness and quality of work life: Indian insights. New Delhi: McGraw Hill.</ref><ref>Chakraborty, S. K. (1993). Managerial transformation by values:A corporate pilgrimage. New Delhi: Sage</ref> provides experimental evidence that practicing yoga, meditating, controlling breathing and stilling the turbulent mind can enable workers and managers to purify their mind and make it spiritual, expand their self to include others around them, and help them grow and transform them- selves without expecting anything in return.
-One of the issues that researchers could confront while using a spiritual and philosophical concept such as yoga to address issues on a materialistic plane is whether yoga should be used for the utilitarian purpose of enhancing
+One of the issues that researchers could confront while using a spiritual and philosophical concept such as yoga to address issues on a materialistic plane is whether yoga should be used for the utilitarian purpose of enhancing a company’s performance, and whether a path of individual realizational quest (mukti) can be used to enhance managerial performance. When yoga is interpreted as ‘a way to unite with universal consciousness’ (yujjyate anena iti yogah), it emphasizes the individual realizational quest aspect of yoga. However, there are other definitions of yoga which point to the possibility of using it as a method of improving one’s quality of living and responses to events<ref name=":1" />.
-a company’s performance, and whether a path of individual realisational quest (mukti) can be used to enhance mana- gerial performance. When yoga is interpreted as ‘a way to unite with universal consciousness’ (yujjyate anena iti yogah), it emphasises the individual realisational quest aspect of yoga. However, there are other definitions of yoga which point to the possibility of using it as a method of improving one’s quality of living and responses to events.
+Yoga is defined as ‘skill in action’ (yogah karmasu kau- salam) in the Bhagavad Gita (Swami Tapasyananda, 1984<ref name=":11" />, Chapter 2, Shloka 50) which discusses yoga explicitly, and further states that one must strive for the state of yoga where ‘One (is) endowed with unperturbed evenness of mind (that) abandons the effects of both good and bad actions’ even in this world. The original shloka is as follows: <blockquote>बुद्धियुक्तो जहातीह उभे सुकृतदुष्कृते।</blockquote><blockquote>तस्माद्योगाय युज्यस्व योगः कर्मसु कौशलम्।।2.50।।</blockquote><blockquote>Buddhiyukto jahati’ha ubhe sukrta-duskrte </blockquote><blockquote>Tasmad yogaya yujyasva yogah karmasu kausalam. 2.50</blockquote>This shloka clearly suggests that yoga can be applied to day-to-day living, which seems largely utilitarian. Sri Aurobindo<ref name=":6" />, stating the power of yoga, reiterates that right knowledge becomes the infallible source of right action (yohgah karmasu kaushalam) (p 201). To quote Sri Aurobindo fully, ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the Yogic power, the greater the force in action. In this calm the right knowledge comes. The activity of the mind must cease, the chitta be purified, a silence falls upon the restlessness of prakriti; then in that calm, in that voiceless stillness, illumination comes upon the mind, error begins to fade away.clarity establishes itself in the higher stratum of the consciousness, compelling peace and joy in the lower. Right knowledge becomes the infallible source of right action. Yohgah karmasu kaushalam.’ (p 201).
-Yoga is defined as ‘skill in action’ (yogah karmasu kau- salam) in the Bhagavad Gita (Swami Tapasyananda, 1984, Chapter 2, Shloka 50) which discusses yoga explicitly, and further states that one must strive for the state of yoga where ‘One (is) endowed with . unperturbed evenness of mind (that) abandons the effects of both good and bad actions’ even in this world. The original shloka is as follows:
+In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realisational vs utilitarian divide is artificial. A truly realisational objective has to be all- comprehensive.
 ==References==

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 Giacalone and Jurkiewicz<ref>Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Right from wrong: The influence of spirituality on perceptions of unethical business activities. Journal of Business Ethics, 46(1), Page 85.</ref>(2003) stress yet another major advantage of nurturing the spiritual mindset within each worker in the organisation-ethicality. They assert that fundamental aspects of workplace spirituality, such as meaningful work that provides a feeling of purpose, a sense of connection and positive social relations with co-workers, and the ability to live an integrated life in which the work role does not conflict with the essential nature of a person as a human being, may interact to create different perceptions of ethicality within the organisation.
-Most of the work available on the subject of the impact of yoga on work life/management centres around the impact of transcendental meditation (TM) on various aspects of management. Transcendental meditation is the skill of effortlessly minimising mental activity so that the body settles into a state of rest deeper than deep sleep while the mind becomes clear and alert (Orme-Johnson, Zimmerman, & Hawkins, 1992). A review of over 500 experimental studies conducted in over 200 Universities in 33 countries (Orme-Johnson et al., 1992) revealed that TM helps expand consciousness, decrease oxygen intake and stress level, increase basal skin resistance and coherence in the electro encephalo gram (EEG) and virtually suspends breathing up to 1 minute.
+Most of the work available on the subject of the impact of yoga on work life/management centers around the impact of transcendental meditation (TM) on various aspects of management. Transcendental meditation is the skill of effortlessly minimizing mental activity so that the body settles into a state of rest deeper than deep sleep while the mind becomes clear and alert (Orme-Johnson, Zimmerman, & Hawkins, 1992<ref name=":10">Orme-Johnson, D. W., Zimmerman, E., & Hawkins, M. (1992). Maharishi’s vedic psychology: The science of the cosmic psyche. In H. S. R. Kao, & Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.), Asian perspectives on psychology (pp. 282).</ref>). A review of over 500 experimental studies conducted in over 200 Universities in 33 countries<ref name=":10" /> revealed that TM helps expand consciousness, decrease oxygen intake and stress level, increase basal skin resistance and coherence in the electro encephalo gram (EEG) and virtually suspends breathing up to 1 minute.
-At the University of Texas, Orme-Johnson et al. (1992) showed that meditators display a greater physiological equi- librium than non-meditators. They also showed that medita- tors maintain this equilibrium under stress more effectively than non-meditators. Frew (1974) completed a study that concludes that TM increases individual productivity. Frew found that meditators show increased job satisfaction, a decreased desire to change jobs, better performance, and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers.
+At the University of Texas, Orme-Johnson et al. (1992)<ref name=":10" /> showed that mediators display a greater physiological equilibrium than non-meditators. They also showed that meditators maintain this equilibrium under stress more effectively than non-meditators. Frew (1974)<ref>Frew, D. (1974). Transcendental meditation and productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 17(2), 362.</ref> completed a study that concludes that TM increases individual productivity. Frew found that meditators show increased job satisfaction, a decreased desire to change jobs, better performance, and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers.
-Findings on the TM technique relevant to organisational performance include improved cognitive performance (see Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins, 2005 for a recent summary of studies), increased self-esteem and higher levels of self-actualisation and development (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991), and more effective mana- gerial performance (Torbert, 1987). Previous case studies suggest that large proportions of organisation members practising the TM technique contribute to improvements in organisational performance (Schmidt-Wilk, Alexander, & Swanson, 1996).
+Findings on the TM technique relevant to organisational performance include improved cognitive performance (see Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins, 2005 for a recent summary of studies<ref>Orme-Johnson, D. W., Alexander, C. N., & Hawkins, M. A. (2005). Critique of the national research council’s report on meditation. (Special issue). Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Applications of Maharishi Vedic Science, 17(1), 383e414.</ref>), increased self-esteem and higher levels of self-actualization and development (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991), and more effective mana- gerial performance (Torbert, 1987). Previous case studies suggest that large proportions of organisation members practising the TM technique contribute to improvements in organisational performance (Schmidt-Wilk, Alexander, & Swanson, 1996).
 Parde and Naidu (1992) report empirical evidence to show that people with a strong orientation to working sincerely without being preoccupied with the outcome experience less work-related stress. Misra (1989) found that effort orientation rather than concern for outcome leads to greater intrinsic satisfaction. Chakraborty (1987, 1993) provides experimental evidence that practising yoga, meditating, controlling breathing and stilling the turbulent mind can enable workers and managers to purify their mind and make it spiritual, expand their self to include others around them, and help them grow and transform them- selves without expecting anything in return.

@@ Line 55: / Line 55: @@
 === Yoga and the work life ===
-A series of techniques collectively known as ‘yoga’ present a rich source for generating indigenous organisational development techniques that may perhaps find better acceptance than imported intervention designs from the West (Srinivas, 1994). ‘Originally developed for personal spiritual growth, yoga offers a well formulated approach to planned change’ (Srinivas, 1994, p 271).
+A series of techniques collectively known as ‘yoga’ present a rich source for generating indigenous organisational development techniques that may perhaps find better acceptance than imported intervention designs from the West<ref name=":4" />. ‘Originally developed for personal spiritual growth, yoga offers a well formulated approach to planned change’ (<ref name=":4" />, p 271).
-On the topic of spirituality in the workplace, Sangster (2003) reemphasises that ‘it is possible to lead a spiritual way of life without following any particular religious path’ (p 16). In Sangster’s opinion, spiritual workers are those who think cooperatively and/or altruistically; have a balanced, objective view of the world; listen as much as (or more than) they speak; apply three dimensional bigger picture thinking; believe in a higher driving force and purpose beyond humankind; find the time to think things through objectively; think laterally in order to promote realistic solutions; encourage and empower others self- lessly; work open mindedly with a wide range of people; consistently display integrity and trust; and, expect the best from people without being a soft touch.
+On the topic of spirituality in the workplace, Sangster (2003)<ref>Sangster, C. (2003). Spirituality in the workplace: Finding the holistic happy medium. Training Journal, Page 16</ref> reemphasizes that ‘it is possible to lead a spiritual way of life without following any particular religious path’. In Sangster’s opinion, spiritual workers are those who think cooperatively and/or altruistically; have a balanced, objective view of the world; listen as much as (or more than) they speak; apply three dimensional bigger picture thinking; believe in a higher driving force and purpose beyond humankind; find the time to think things through objectively; think laterally in order to promote realistic solutions; encourage and empower others selflessly; work open mindedly with a wide range of people; consistently display integrity and trust; and, expect the best from people without being a soft touch.
-Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) stress yet another major advantage of nurturing the spiritual mindset within each worker in the organisationdethicality. They assert that fundamental aspects of workplace spirituality, such as meaningful work that provides a feeling of purpose, a sense of connection and positive social relations with co-workers, and the ability to live an integrated life in which the work role does not conflict with the essential nature of a person as a human being, may interact to create different perceptions of ethicality within the organisation (p 85).
+Giacalone and Jurkiewicz<ref>Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Right from wrong: The influence of spirituality on perceptions of unethical business activities. Journal of Business Ethics, 46(1), Page 85.</ref>(2003) stress yet another major advantage of nurturing the spiritual mindset within each worker in the organisation-ethicality. They assert that fundamental aspects of workplace spirituality, such as meaningful work that provides a feeling of purpose, a sense of connection and positive social relations with co-workers, and the ability to live an integrated life in which the work role does not conflict with the essential nature of a person as a human being, may interact to create different perceptions of ethicality within the organisation.
 Most of the work available on the subject of the impact of yoga on work life/management centres around the impact of transcendental meditation (TM) on various aspects of management. Transcendental meditation is the skill of effortlessly minimising mental activity so that the body settles into a state of rest deeper than deep sleep while the mind becomes clear and alert (Orme-Johnson, Zimmerman, & Hawkins, 1992). A review of over 500 experimental studies conducted in over 200 Universities in 33 countries (Orme-Johnson et al., 1992) revealed that TM helps expand consciousness, decrease oxygen intake and stress level, increase basal skin resistance and coherence in the electro encephalo gram (EEG) and virtually suspends breathing up to 1 minute.