Textile Technology (तन्तुकार्यम्) - Revision history

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@@ Line 138: / Line 138: @@
 [[File:Shaft and peddle attachments.PNG|left|thumb|Fig. 10: Shaft and Peddle attachments. Note narrow width of border, geometrical mirror, image motifs and bobbin used. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n413/mode/2up p.374.] Fig.11b.</ref>]]
 [[File:Manipulation of Peddle.PNG|thumb|Fig. 11 Manipulation of Peddles with the big toe of each foot. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n413/mode/2up p.374.] Fig.11c.</ref>]]
-Fabrics can also be ornamented by the jamdani (Fig.l5a,b), slit, single and double interlock as also the dovetail tapestry techniques (Figs.l6a-d, 17a-b.). None of these methods of weaving involve usage of elaborate loom procedures. The investment is in terms of manual skill. Jamdani and tapestry both pre-date the introduction of the Islamic repertoire in weaves. In Jamdani, which falls under the category' of Supplementary weft inlaid, pattern ends are manually lifted with the pattern weft and ground weft positioned within the same shed (Fig. 15a-b). Major centres of Jamdani have been Dhaka, Tanda, Uppada and Paithan.
+Fabrics can also be ornamented by the jamdani (Refer Fig.l4-15), slit, single and double interlock as also the dovetail tapestry techniques (Fig 16a-d, 17a-b). None of these methods of weaving involve usage of elaborate loom procedures. The investment is in terms of manual skill. Jamdani and tapestry both pre-date the introduction of the Islamic repertoire in weaves. In Jamdani, which falls under the category' of Supplementary weft inlaid, pattern ends are manually lifted with the pattern weft and ground weft positioned within the same shed (Fig. 15a-b). Major centres of Jamdani have been Dhaka, Tanda, Uppada and Paithan.
 [[File:Tablet weaving apparatus.PNG|left|thumb|Fig. 12 Tablet weaving apparatus. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n415/mode/2up p.376.] Fig.13.</ref>]]
 Slit tapestry, an early technique associated with Coptic tapestry, is found in the panja dari (Fig. 18); single and double interlock (Fig.16 b.c), occur in Kani Pashmina, to mention one example; the prime example of dovetail tapestry is the Kulu and Kinnaur body wrapper of Himachal Pradesh (Fig. 19.).
 [[File:Tapes for tying manuscripts.PNG|left|thumb|Fig. 13 Tapes for tying manuscripts, possibly made in Varanasi acquired in A.D. 1885. It is double faced in reversible colour. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n415/mode/2up p.377.] Fig.14.</ref>]]
 In South India where garments follow the mode of the ground fabric being fashioned in one colour with borders of another, the interlock is found at junctions where two opposing weft coloured picks are united. Since three separate shuttles are used in this category of weaving, this is also called the three shuttle technique (Fig.20).
+[[File:Structure of Jamdani fabric.PNG|thumb|Fig. 14. Structure of Jamdani fabric. 1. Warp, 2. Weft, 3. Supplementary weft. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n415/mode/2up p.377.] Fig.15a.</ref>]]
 The major differentiation between the North and South Indian schema in ornamentation is that in the former there is greater reliance on weft patterning whereas in the latter there has been a greater orientation to warp ornamentation. This is reflected in loom typology. The ability to experiment with weft structures is associated with the development of the reed which ensures a more even separation of ends and maintenance of tension. The reed number is related to the count of the yarn, and this in turn, conforms to the structure of the fabric. Its presence on the loom would also facilitate the working of loom attachments such as multiple shafts and harnesses.

@@ Line 131: / Line 131: @@
 Items similar in patterning and technique and dated between the 12th and 16th centuries in the Dumbarton Oaks, collection, U.S.A., have been assigned an Egyptian provenance. This corresponds to the period between the Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties thus reinforcing a Near Eastern origin for the sub- category called majnu in India
-However, the double cloth technique also appears to have enjoyed an indigenous base. This is evidenced in the Deccani double coloured Pitambar sari, a silken ritual garment in which each side of the sari presents a completely different colour field (Fig. 10). However, the multiple cloths which evolved in the Near East have been absent in the Indian tradition.
+However, the double cloth technique also appears to have enjoyed an indigenous base. This is evidenced in the Deccani double coloured Pitambar sari, a silken ritual garment in which each side of the sari presents a completely different colour field. However, the multiple cloths which evolved in the Near East have been absent in the Indian tradition.
 [[File:Tabby weave.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 8.''' Structure of tabby weave. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n411/mode/2up P.373], Fig.8.</ref>]]
 One of the characteristics of the Indian loom has been the intensive use of shafts and treadles to achieve extra warp and weft patterning. For extra warp however, an ingenious device, the barrel dobby is much in evidence today. The dobby was patented in England but its roots may well lie in shaft and peddle devices used in extra warp ornamentation as in the Paithani loom, Maharashtra.
 [[File:Sample of Majnu.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 9.''' Samples of majnu. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n413/mode/2up p.374.] Fig.9b.</ref>]]
-For narrow weaving as in borders, Pagris, and for cross borders, looms with multiple shafts have proved popular solutions (Figs.11a-c). For weaving of newar and patti, used in providing the base on bed frames and for winding around the calves of persons having to stand for long periods, variations of the fixed heddle and looms with shafts have been used (Fig 12.) Such looms are in operation to this day in Wadhwan, Gujarat. Tablet weaving (Fig.13) is used as a finishing technique for dhablas, used as shawls or as body garments in Gujarat. It also appears to have been utilised in the weaving of tapes (Fig. 14) used for tying bundles of manuscripts of a religious nature.
+For narrow weaving as in borders, Pagris, and for cross borders, looms with multiple shafts have proved popular solutions (Refer Fig.10-11). For weaving of newar and patti, used in providing the base on bed frames and for winding around the calves of persons having to stand for long periods, variations of the fixed heddle and looms with shafts have been used. Such looms are in operation to this day in Wadhwan, Gujarat. Tablet weaving (Refer Fig.12) is used as a finishing technique for dhablas, used as shawls or as body garments in Gujarat. It also appears to have been utilised in the weaving of tapes (Refer Fig. 13) used for tying bundles of manuscripts of a religious nature.
+[[File:Shaft and peddle attachments.PNG|left|thumb|Fig. 10: Shaft and Peddle attachments. Note narrow width of border, geometrical mirror, image motifs and bobbin used. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n413/mode/2up p.374.] Fig.11b.</ref>]]
 Fabrics can also be ornamented by the jamdani (Fig.l5a,b), slit, single and double interlock as also the dovetail tapestry techniques (Figs.l6a-d, 17a-b.). None of these methods of weaving involve usage of elaborate loom procedures. The investment is in terms of manual skill. Jamdani and tapestry both pre-date the introduction of the Islamic repertoire in weaves. In Jamdani, which falls under the category' of Supplementary weft inlaid, pattern ends are manually lifted with the pattern weft and ground weft positioned within the same shed (Fig. 15a-b). Major centres of Jamdani have been Dhaka, Tanda, Uppada and Paithan.
+[[File:Tablet weaving apparatus.PNG|left|thumb|Fig. 12 Tablet weaving apparatus. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n415/mode/2up p.376.] Fig.13.</ref>]]
 Slit tapestry, an early technique associated with Coptic tapestry, is found in the panja dari (Fig. 18); single and double interlock (Fig.16 b.c), occur in Kani Pashmina, to mention one example; the prime example of dovetail tapestry is the Kulu and Kinnaur body wrapper of Himachal Pradesh (Fig. 19.).
+[[File:Tapes for tying manuscripts.PNG|left|thumb|Fig. 13 Tapes for tying manuscripts, possibly made in Varanasi acquired in A.D. 1885. It is double faced in reversible colour. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n415/mode/2up p.377.] Fig.14.</ref>]]
 In South India where garments follow the mode of the ground fabric being fashioned in one colour with borders of another, the interlock is found at junctions where two opposing weft coloured picks are united. Since three separate shuttles are used in this category of weaving, this is also called the three shuttle technique (Fig.20).

@@ Line 122: / Line 122: @@
 [[File:Loinloom 1.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 4. Loin loom and loom parts:''' 1. Bamboo which serves the same purpose as the warp beam in a horizontal loom. 2. Thin bamboo rod which acts as a lease rod. 3. Bamboo shod stick. 4. Thin bamboo heddle stick which holds the yarn heddles. 5. Wooden beater. 6. Wooden rods which serve the same purpose as the cloth beam in a horizontal loom. 7. Leather back-strap. 8. The continuous warp. 9. The woven fabric. 10. Mat spread on the floor on which the weaver sits. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n407/mode/2up P.368], Fig.6a.</ref>]]
 [[File:Change of Shed 1.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 5. Change of shed in loin loom 1:''' 1. Lease rod. 2. Bamboo shod stick. 3. Heddle rod. 4. Yarn to make the heddle. 5. Weft. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n407/mode/2up P.369], Fig.6b.i.</ref>]]
-The loom used for Patola {double ikat) weaving in Patan, Gujarat, receives support from above and the sides. It is bereft of a treadle mechanism. It is a single harness loom with provision for two sheds. Every alternative warp end is threaded through a half heddle. Thus the shedding arrangement is based upon the division of the warp ends into two units. The shed rod is used to form one shed and half heddles for the formation of the second. These groupings of odd and even ends interlace alternately in course of weaving. The weaving sword helps in extending each shed opening and is used for beating in the weft. The resultant weave is an even tabby {Figs. 7a-c,8).
+The loom used for Patola (double ikat) weaving in Patan, Gujarat, receives support from above and the sides. It is bereft of a treadle mechanism. It is a single harness loom with provision for two sheds. Every alternative warp end is threaded through a half heddle. Thus the shedding arrangement is based upon the division of the warp ends into two units. The shed rod is used to form one shed and half heddles for the formation of the second. These groupings of odd and even ends interlace alternately in course of weaving. The weaving sword helps in extending each shed opening and is used for beating in the weft. The resultant weave is an even tabby (Refer Fig.7).
-Ornamentation on the loom can be achieved by introducing variations in color while maintaining a simple tabby weave {Fig.8). Similar effects can be achieved by using double cloth techniques in which warp ends are manipulated at two or more levels by relevant shafts and heddles. An example of this technique may be found in the khes (27) of Punjab {Figs.9a-b.).
+Ornamentation on the loom can be achieved by introducing variations in color while maintaining a simple tabby weave (Refer to Fig.8 for structure of tabby weave).
-Items similar in patterning and technique and dated between the 12th and 16th centuries in the Dumbarton Oaks, collection, U.S.A., have been assigned an Egyptian provenance. This corresponds to the period between the Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties thus reinforcing a Near Eastern origin for the sub- category called majnu in India (Thompson, pp. 35-36; Lamm, p.60, plate XXA, B).
+Similar effects can be achieved by using double cloth techniques in which warp ends are manipulated at two or more levels by relevant shafts and heddles. An example of this technique may be found in the khes of Punjab. The item categorised as khes in Pakistan corresponds to the article in Fig. 9. In India, however, there appears to have been two categories, khes and majnu. Khes is a rough quality off-white or checked handloom material used as wrapper in Punjab. According to Sri D.N. Vij, Panipat Textile Handicrafts, Panipat, majnu is a double cloth with a patterning as shown in Fig. 9.
 However, the double cloth technique also appears to have enjoyed an indigenous base. This is evidenced in the Deccani double coloured Pitambar sari, a silken ritual garment in which each side of the sari presents a completely different colour field (Fig. 10). However, the multiple cloths which evolved in the Near East have been absent in the Indian tradition.
+[[File:Tabby weave.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 8.''' Structure of tabby weave. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n411/mode/2up P.373], Fig.8.</ref>]]
 One of the characteristics of the Indian loom has been the intensive use of shafts and treadles to achieve extra warp and weft patterning. For extra warp however, an ingenious device, the barrel dobby is much in evidence today. The dobby was patented in England but its roots may well lie in shaft and peddle devices used in extra warp ornamentation as in the Paithani loom, Maharashtra.
+[[File:Sample of Majnu.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 9.''' Samples of majnu. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n413/mode/2up p.374.] Fig.9b.</ref>]]
 For narrow weaving as in borders, Pagris, and for cross borders, looms with multiple shafts have proved popular solutions (Figs.11a-c). For weaving of newar and patti, used in providing the base on bed frames and for winding around the calves of persons having to stand for long periods, variations of the fixed heddle and looms with shafts have been used (Fig 12.) Such looms are in operation to this day in Wadhwan, Gujarat. Tablet weaving (Fig.13) is used as a finishing technique for dhablas, used as shawls or as body garments in Gujarat. It also appears to have been utilised in the weaving of tapes (Fig. 14) used for tying bundles of manuscripts of a religious nature.

@@ Line 114: / Line 114: @@
 == Indian Loom Technology ==
-[[File:Pitloom.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 1. Pitloom''': Horizontal counter balance pit loom with shafts and treadles. This loom is positioned within the living accomodation of the weaver and therefore, allows for integration with other domestic activities and pasttimes. Note the narrow reed. This loom is used for weaving tribal loin cloths. Weaver, Sri Rama Bhai Wanker, Chota Udepur, Gujarat. Source: INSA Publication.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n401/mode/2up P.363], Fig.3b.</ref>]]
+[[File:Pitloom.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 1. Pitloom''': Horizontal counter balance pit loom with shafts and treadles. This loom is positioned within the living accomodation of the weaver and therefore, allows for integration with other domestic activities and pasttimes. Note the narrow reed. This loom is used for weaving tribal loin cloths. Weaver, Sri Rama Bhai Wanker, Chota Udepur, Gujarat. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n405/mode/2up P.366], Fig.4.</ref>]]
-[[File:Shed Formation.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 2. Shed Formation''': In order to create a shed, the suspended heddle shaft is slightly lifted. A flat stick is inserted in the small shed formed. This stick is then turned on its side to get a wider opening. The counter shed is formed by taking out the flat stick and bringing the shed rod closer to the heddle shaft. Although there is a continuous warp, usually the full warp is stretched out horizontally. Source: INSA Publication.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n401/mode/2up P.363], Fig.3b.</ref>]]
+[[File:Shed Formation.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 2. Shed Formation''': In order to create a shed, the suspended heddle shaft is slightly lifted. A flat stick is inserted in the small shed formed. This stick is then turned on its side to get a wider opening. The counter shed is formed by taking out the flat stick and bringing the shed rod closer to the heddle shaft. Although there is a continuous warp, usually the full warp is stretched out horizontally. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n401/mode/2up P.363], Fig.3b.</ref>]]
 The loom has been defined by Dorothy Burnham as, <blockquote>''“any device for weaving on which the warp may be arranged and openings for the passage of the weft formed through it by a shedding mechanism.”'' </blockquote>The predominant loom in India has been the pitloom of the horizontal counter-balance treadle type (Refer Fig.1). Broadly speaking, on the basis of ethnological evidence, the evolution of the Indian loom could be postulated as follows:
 * At the first stage, the loom may have had shed sticks and heddles (Refer Fig.2).
-* Next came the introduction of the reed that maintained even spacing and tension and served to comb the warp ends in course of weaving; As also that shaft, treadle and, perhaps, the barrell dobby (Refer Fig.3).[[File:Barrel dobby.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 3. Barrel dobby mechanism''': The loom used for weaving Karvathi Kati dhoti. Photographed at Suraj Mela, 1987. Source: INSA Publication.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n401/mode/2up P.363], Fig.3b.</ref>]]
+* Next came the introduction of the reed that maintained even spacing and tension and served to comb the warp ends in course of weaving; As also the shaft, treadle and, perhaps, the barrell dobby (Refer Fig.3).
-The loin or body tension loom is used in the northeastern part of the country. It is a very early loom type used extensively in East and Southeast Asia in which the weaver regulates tension by moving backwards or forwards as required in course of weaving. This movement releases the warp threads and also facilitates the separation of the sheds (For details, see Shirali, pp. 83-87) (Figs. 6a-c).
+[[File:Barrel dobby.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 3. Barrel dobby mechanism''': The loom used for weaving Karvathi Kati dhoti. Photographed at Suraj Mela, 1987. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n401/mode/2up P.363], Fig.5.</ref>]]The loin or body tension loom is used in the northeastern part of the country. It is a very early loom type used extensively in East and Southeast Asia in which the weaver regulates tension by moving backwards or forwards as required in course of weaving. This movement releases the warp threads and also facilitates the separation of the sheds (Refer Fig. 4, 5 & 6).
+[[File:Loinloom 1.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 4. Loin loom and loom parts:''' 1. Bamboo which serves the same purpose as the warp beam in a horizontal loom. 2. Thin bamboo rod which acts as a lease rod. 3. Bamboo shod stick. 4. Thin bamboo heddle stick which holds the yarn heddles. 5. Wooden beater. 6. Wooden rods which serve the same purpose as the cloth beam in a horizontal loom. 7. Leather back-strap. 8. The continuous warp. 9. The woven fabric. 10. Mat spread on the floor on which the weaver sits. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n407/mode/2up P.368], Fig.6a.</ref>]]
 The loom used for Patola {double ikat) weaving in Patan, Gujarat, receives support from above and the sides. It is bereft of a treadle mechanism. It is a single harness loom with provision for two sheds. Every alternative warp end is threaded through a half heddle. Thus the shedding arrangement is based upon the division of the warp ends into two units. The shed rod is used to form one shed and half heddles for the formation of the second. These groupings of odd and even ends interlace alternately in course of weaving. The weaving sword helps in extending each shed opening and is used for beating in the weft. The resultant weave is an even tabby {Figs. 7a-c,8).
 Ornamentation on the loom can be achieved by introducing variations in color while maintaining a simple tabby weave {Fig.8). Similar effects can be achieved by using double cloth techniques in which warp ends are manipulated at two or more levels by relevant shafts and heddles. An example of this technique may be found in the khes (27) of Punjab {Figs.9a-b.).
+[[File:Change of Shed 2.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 6. Change of Shed in loin loom 2:''' 1. Lease rod. 2. Bamboo shod stick. 3. New position of the heddle rod. 4. Weft. Courtesy: INSA.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n407/mode/2up P.369], Fig.6b.ii.</ref>]]
 (27) The item categorised as khes in Pakistan corresponds to the article in Fig. 9b. In India, however, there appears to have been two categories, khes and majnu. Khes is a rough quality off-white or checked handloom material used as wrapper in Punjab. According to Sri D.N. Vij, Panipat Textile Handicrafts, Panipat, majnu is a double cloth with a patterning as shown in Fig. 9h. The technique was ascribed by him to Multan.

@@ Line 114: / Line 114: @@
 == Indian Loom Technology ==
-The loom has been defined by Dorothy Burnham as, “any device for weaving on which the warp may be arranged and openings for the passage of the weft formed through it by a shedding mechanism” (Hoffmann, p.7). The predominant loom in India has been the pitloom of the horizontal counter-balance treadle type (Fig.4,). Broadly speaking, on the basis of ethnological evidence, the evolution of the Indian loom could be postulated as follows: at the first stage the loom may have had shed sticks and heddles (Figs. 3a, 3b.). Next came the introduction of the reed (Fig.4), shaft, treadle and, perhaps, the barrell dobby (26) (Fig. 5.).
+[[File:Pitloom.PNG|left|thumb|'''Fig. 1. Pitloom''': Horizontal counter balance pit loom with shafts and treadles. This loom is positioned within the living accomodation of the weaver and therefore, allows for integration with other domestic activities and pasttimes. Note the narrow reed. This loom is used for weaving tribal loin cloths. Weaver, Sri Rama Bhai Wanker, Chota Udepur, Gujarat. Source: INSA Publication.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n401/mode/2up P.363], Fig.3b.</ref>]]
+[[File:Shed Formation.PNG|thumb|'''Fig. 2. Shed Formation''': In order to create a shed, the suspended heddle shaft is slightly lifted. A flat stick is inserted in the small shed formed. This stick is then turned on its side to get a wider opening. The counter shed is formed by taking out the flat stick and bringing the shed rod closer to the heddle shaft. Although there is a continuous warp, usually the full warp is stretched out horizontally. Source: INSA Publication.<ref>A. K. Bag, History of Technology in India (Vol. I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, Lotika Varadarajan & Krishna Amin Patel, Textile Technology, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n401/mode/2up P.363], Fig.3b.</ref>]]
-(26) Varadarajan and Patel, p.20. The reed not only maintains even spacing and tension but also serves to comb the warp ends in course of weaving.
+The loom has been defined by Dorothy Burnham as, <blockquote>''“any device for weaving on which the warp may be arranged and openings for the passage of the weft formed through it by a shedding mechanism.”'' </blockquote>The predominant loom in India has been the pitloom of the horizontal counter-balance treadle type (Refer Fig.1). Broadly speaking, on the basis of ethnological evidence, the evolution of the Indian loom could be postulated as follows:
+* At the first stage, the loom may have had shed sticks and heddles (Refer Fig.2).
 The loin or body tension loom is used in the northeastern part of the country. It is a very early loom type used extensively in East and Southeast Asia in which the weaver regulates tension by moving backwards or forwards as required in course of weaving. This movement releases the warp threads and also facilitates the separation of the sheds (For details, see Shirali, pp. 83-87) (Figs. 6a-c).

@@ Line 91: / Line 91: @@
 === Silk ===
-The silk tradition in India is a very early one and by the time of the compilation of the Arthashastra (18) there had emerged a clear sense of the distinction between Indian and Chinese silk, and, within India, there was an association between the colour and the quality of local bi- and multi-voltine cocoons of Bombyx mori (mulberry feeding moth), and that spun from the cocoon of the multi-voltine Atticus ricini (Eri).
+The silk tradition in India is a very early one and by the time of the compilation of the Arthashastra there had emerged a clear sense of the distinction between Indian and Chinese silk, and, within India, there was an association between the colour and the quality of local bi- and multi-voltine cocoons of Bombyx mori (mulberry feeding moth), and that spun from the cocoon of the multi-voltine Atticus ricini (Eri). Wild silk is reeled from Antherea mylitta (Tasar), Antherea assamensis and Saiumia assama (Muga). While Eri is obtained from the cocoons of the moth Philosamia cynthia. This distinction between domesticated and will silk is based on whether the worm can be reared under controlled conditions or not, i.e. whether the worm is fed indoors or left to find its nutriment and complete its life cycle outdoors. Bengal and Assam have been the traditional centres for mulberry silk. Muga and Eri are restricted to Assam, while Tasar has been produced in Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh.
-(18) For silk in Arthashastra see Kangle.II pp. 104-105, 2. II 102-124.Prof.B.N.Mukherjee (Oral communication,30 Dec, 1981, Dept, of Ancient Indian History, Calcutta, dates Arthashastra to a point earlier than first century A.D.
+Mulberry silk has a tradition of being woven even in areas ignorant of its cultivation, but the weaving of wild silk has tended to be more localised being generally restricted to the actual regions where the raw material was produced.<ref name=":0" />
 === Cotton ===
-The cradle of cotton cultivation appears to have been the Northwestern part of South Asia. There seems to have been two species, Gossypium arboreum and Gossypium, horbaceum. Three samples of cotton, dated circa B.C. 1760 have been found in Mohenjodaro. Two items constitute the base fibre for string but there is also a small 34 count cotton woven fragment comprising 60 ends and 20 picks per inch. A portion of one of the strings tested showed that the cotton was of the G.arboreum variety. Both varieties existed in their perennial forms in areas with adequate water and warm temperature. The appearance of the annual variety of G.herbaceum, which could be diffused over a larger area is dated circa late 6th early 7th centuries A.D. and its earliest appearance is associated with the Turfan region of Sinkiang. It soon became the predominent species in India as well (20). The highest achievement in the area of textiles in India are associated with manipulation of this fibre.
+The cradle of cotton cultivation appears to have been the Northwestern part of South Asia. There seems to have been two species,
+# Gossypium arboreum
-(20) Candolle, pp. 403-405. For the find of madder dyed cotton fibre in Mohenjodaro circa second millenium B.C. see Gulati, Turner, pp. 1,4,9; Watson, pp. 356-357, 359- 360, n.7, 363-364.<ref name=":0" />
+# Gossypium horbaceum
 == Indian Predelictions in colour and levels attained in Dye Technology ==
-By and large, pre-Islamic Indian predelictions in colour tended towards a sober palate (21).
+By and large, Early Indian predelictions in colour tended towards a sober palate. The range of colour in cotton dyeing was based on:
+* Blue and Black from Indigofera tinctoria
-(21) For further development of the argument see Varadarajan 1985, p.65; Varadarajan, 1984, p.234.
+* Black from iron acetate or a ferrugenous earth from Kutch called Khayo
+* Red from either Rubia cordifolia, Morinda citrifolia or Ventilago madraspatana
-The range of colour in cotton dyeing was based on blue and black from Indigofera tinctoria, black from iron acetate or a ferrugenous earth from Kutch called Khayo, red from either Rubia cordifolia, Morinda citrifolia or Ventilago madraspatana, yellow from Curcuma longa (turmeric), Punica granatam (pomegranate rind) or Mangifera indica (mango bark extract). Different shades could be obtained by combining individual dyeing procedures. Tanning and mordanting were very important pre-dyeing operations for cotton (22).
+* Yellow from Curcuma longa (turmeric), Punica granatam (pomegranate rind) or Mangifera indica (mango bark extract)
 Different shades could be obtained by combining individual dyeing procedures.
-(25) A variation of block printing restricted to silk guaze was the clamp resist method practiced in Gujarat. See Buhler, and Fischer, pp.3-7.
+Tanning and mordanting were very important pre-dyeing operations for cotton. In Egypt mordanting in linen was practiced but the importance of tanning for fixing of the mordant was mastered in India. There is some variation in methods of dyeing and dyes used in the range of fibres such as silk and wool. In the case of silk, efficient degumming is essential for success in subsequent dyeing operations. Generally, the yarn rather than the woven fabric has been dyed.
-Tie & dye may be practiced on wool, silk and cotton. In India painting and stamping has tended to predominate on cotton.<ref name=":0" />
+Techniques of patterning achieved through variation in colour are associated with the practice of ikat, plangi, painting or block printing. Batik as practiced in Indonesia involving usage of cold dyes is alien to the Indian tradition. However, in Mundhra, Kutch, there is a tradition of resist dyeing in which the resist paste, minia, is made of a mixture of top soil of goats pens which includes goats droppings, gugul local incense resin, olibanum, Fuller’s earth and gum made into paste consistency which withstands hot dyeing. The colour palette comprised red, white and black. The earliest methods of dye patterning were accomplished by resisting through knotting of either the yarn as in ikat, or the finished product, as in plangi/bandhani, prior to processes of colouration. Fabrics could also be dye-patterned either by means of painting, or by stamping of mordant and resist with wooden blocks, the end product was called Kalamkari or Cit. A variation of block printing restricted to silk guaze was the clamp resist method practiced in Gujarat. Tie & dye may be practiced on wool, silk and cotton. In India painting and stamping has tended to predominate on cotton.<ref name=":0" />
 == Indian Loom Technology ==

@@ Line 26: / Line 26: @@
 # Wool
 # Silk
-# Cotton.
+# Cotton
 This survey excludes bark cloth and also, felt or namda (नांदा), which is non-woven and therefore, may be classified as a fabric rather than a textile.<ref name=":0" />
@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 ==== Flax Fibres ====
-Linen, referred to as Kshauma in early texts, is obtained from the plant Linum usimtissirnum. The plant is called Uma (उमा) in the Charaka Samhita while Panini uses the term Kshuma and atasi. Uma and Kshuma had the connotation of linen while atasi had that of linseed oil. Linum usitatissimum was not indigenous to India and in antiquity it was cultivated in Egypt, Europe and Northern India. The attempt to popularise that plant for its flax fibre failed in this country, but as a source of linseed oil it was extensively cultivated.
+Linen, referred to as Kshauma in early texts, is obtained from the plant Linum usimtissimum. The plant is called Uma (उमा) in the Charaka Samhita while Panini uses the term Kshuma and atasi. Uma and Kshuma had the connotation of linen while atasi had that of linseed oil. Linum usitatissimum was not indigenous to India and in antiquity it was cultivated in Egypt, Europe and Northern India. The attempt to popularise that plant for its flax fibre failed in this country, but as a source of linseed oil it was extensively cultivated.
 Flax fibres are long, lustrous, strong, and can stand up to high tension. They are smooth, hard faced, inelastic and resistant to abrasion. They are also good heat conductors and readily absorb water.
@@ Line 48: / Line 48: @@
 <blockquote>यज्ञस्य वै सृष्टस्योल्बमन्वलंबत तद्वासः क्षौमं अभवत्, तस्मात् क्षौमेण दीक्षयन्ति यज्ञस्य सयोनित्वाय...<ref>Maitrayani Samhita, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6].</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>''yajñasya vai sr̥ṣṭasyōlbamanvalaṁbata tadvāsaḥ kṣaumaṁ abhavat, tasmāt kṣaumēṇa dīkṣayanti yajñasya sayōnitvāya...''</blockquote>
 * The Taittiriya samhita (6.1.1-3).
-<blockquote>अन्तरत एव मेध्यो भवति वाससा दीक्षयति सौम्यं वै क्षौमं देवतया सोमम् एष देवताम् उपैति यो दीक्षते सोमस्य तनूर् असि तनुवम् मे पाहीत्य् आह स्वाम् एव देवताम् उपैति ।<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 6, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AC/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''antarata ēva mēdhyō bhavati vāsasā dīkṣayati saumyaṁ vai kṣaumaṁ dēvatayā sōmam ēṣa dēvatām upaiti yō dīkṣatē sōmasya tanūr asi tanuvam mē pāhīty āha svām ēva dēvatām upaiti ।''</blockquote>Domestic production could not have been sufficient at all times to meet the demand and supplies that must have been drawn from other sectors. Circa B.C. 600, the Phoenicians were distributing Egyptian linen in the Mediterranean region. Since there is indication of the Phoenician network penetrating into Babylonia it would not unreasonable to surmise that Egyptian linen was vended in India through a distribution system linking Western India to Babylonia through the Persian seaways. When the Roman market impinged on the Erythraean Sea, Egyptian linen was exported to India through intermediaries in Roman trade in payment for spices(6).
+<blockquote>अन्तरत एव मेध्यो भवति वाससा दीक्षयति सौम्यं वै क्षौमं देवतया सोमम् एष देवताम् उपैति यो दीक्षते सोमस्य तनूर् असि तनुवम् मे पाहीत्य् आह स्वाम् एव देवताम् उपैति ।<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 6, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AC/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''antarata ēva mēdhyō bhavati vāsasā dīkṣayati saumyaṁ vai kṣaumaṁ dēvatayā sōmam ēṣa dēvatām upaiti yō dīkṣatē sōmasya tanūr asi tanuvam mē pāhīty āha svām ēva dēvatām upaiti ।''</blockquote>Domestic production could not have been sufficient at all times to meet the demand and supplies that must have been drawn from other sectors. Circa B.C. 600, the Phoenicians were distributing Egyptian linen in the Mediterranean region. Since there is indication of the Phoenician network penetrating into Babylonia it would not unreasonable to surmise that Egyptian linen was vended in India through a distribution system linking Western India to Babylonia through the Persian seaways. When the Roman market impinged on the Erythraean Sea, Egyptian linen was exported to India through intermediaries in Roman trade in payment for spices. However, by the 12th century, flax as an agricultural crop in Egypt declined.
-(6) Mesopotamia had developed its expertise in wool, Egypt had traditionally been the centre for linen weaving. The decline of flax as an agricultural crop in Egypt is traced to the 12th century.
+It is to be noted that predominant demand appears to have been for fine quality linen and in the Amarakosha, Kshauma is regarded as synonymous with dukula. In course of time, it was identified with the silk and between the 12th and 16th centuries A.D. its original meaning began to be forgotten.
 ==== Hemp Fibres ====
-Hemp receives mention in the Shatapatha Brahmana. It mentions hemp as shana.
+Hemp receives mention in the Shatapatha Brahmana as 'shana'. This fibre, which is inelastic and crushes easily, is derived for purposes of weaving from the bark of
+* Cannabis sativa : The oldest hempen fragment from Cannabis sativa, dated to circa B.C. 800, has been found at Gordion in Asia Minor. Though Cannabis sativa, characterised as true hemp, is indigenous to all parts of India, as a source of fibre, it has been utilised only in Nepal.
-The fibre, which is inelastic and crushes easily, is derived for purposes of weaving from the bark of Cannabis sativa, Crotalaria juncea and Hibiscus cannabinus. The oldest hempen fragment from Cannabis sativa, dated to circa B.C. 800, has been found at Gordion in Asia Minor. In India, however, Cannabis sativa, characterised as true hemp, has been cultivated predominantly for the narcotic extract obtained from its leaves and flowers. Known as bhanga, vijaya in Sanskrit, ganja in Hindi, Bengali and Persian, it is indigenous to all parts of India. As a source of fibre, it has been utilised only in Nepal. The most popular source for hemp in India has been the bark of Crotalaria juncea called in Sanskrit as shana and in Bengali as son. It is an annual plant cultivated in all parts of South Asia. The fibre in Bengal is whiter than that of Maharashtra because of the more rigorous processes of cleaning adopted. The history of shana pre-dates that of jute in India. The term gunny, carrying the connotation of jute in modern times, was derived from the term goni, a coarse cloth originally made from shana.
+* Crotalaria juncea : The most popular source for hemp in India has been the bark of Crotalaria juncea (Konkani hemp) called in Sanskrit as shana and in Bengali as son. It is an annual plant cultivated in all parts of South Asia. The fibre in Bengal is whiter than that of Maharashtra because of the more rigorous processes of cleaning adopted. The history of shana pre-dates that of jute in India. The term gunny, carrying the connotation of jute in modern times, was derived from the term goni, a coarse cloth originally made from shana.
+* Hibiscus cannabinus : In the case of Hibiscus cannaibinus called as mesta pat in Bengal, ambaree or ambadi in Maharashtra and Palungoo in Madras, the bark has been utilised for its fibre, while the leaves have served as a comestible. An alternative term adopted in Bombay for ambaree was Deccani hemp to distinguish it from Crotalaria juncea or Konkani hemp. In the hilly areas of the region known earlier as the Circars in present day Andhra Pradesh, this plant was called Hibiscus collinus, the vernacular term being kanda gang (8). It is called Hibiscus eriocarpus in present times.
-In the case of Hibiscus cannaibinus called as mesta pat in Bengal, ambaree or ambadi in Maharashtra and Palungoo in Madras, the bark has been utilised for its fibre, while the leaves have served as a comestible. An alternative term adopted in Bombay for ambaree was Deccani hemp to distinguish it from Crotalaria juncea or Konkani hemp. In the hilly areas of the region known earlier as the Circars in present day Andhra Pradesh, this plant was called Hibiscus collinus, the vernacular term being kanda gang (8). It is called Hibiscus eriocarpus in present times. In central India, Verrier Elwin records that the Bondas, Gadabas and Parengas spin fibre from the bark of Calotropis gigantea. This is arka in Sanskrit, ak in Hindi and akado in Gujarati. This is mixed with cotton and woven on simple looms. Both fibres can be dyed. This cloth is called Keranga cloth (9).
+In central India, Verrier Elwin records that the Bondas, Gadabas and Parengas spin fibre from the bark of Calotropis gigantea. This is arka in Sanskrit, ak in Hindi and akado in Gujarati. This is mixed with cotton and woven on simple looms. Both fibres can be dyed. This cloth is called Keranga cloth (9).
-(8) It is of interest that in Bengal and Orissa, there is living memory of a cheaper variant of the silken ritual garment, called patta vastra. These are said to have been woven of a mixture of silk and hemp or of hemp alone. In Maharashtra a similar garment exists, referred to as mugata. In present times, with the help of modern technology, rayon patta vastra are being fashioned.
+It is of interest that in Bengal and Orissa, there is living memory of a cheaper variant of the silken ritual garment, called patta vastra. These are said to have been woven of a mixture of silk and hemp or of hemp alone. In Maharashtra a similar garment exists, referred to as mugata. In present times, with the help of modern technology, rayon patta vastra are being fashioned.
 (9) The Bonds and the Gadaba are associated with the Korapat District and the Dudma Falls respectively in Orissa. Samples of Keranga cloth are displayed in the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University, Bhubaneshwar. The loom is a simple frame loom.