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Sadhanas in Sanatana Dharma

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−	Sadhana (Samskrit: ~~साधना~~) is a term widely used in the Vedantic and Yoga texts to primarily represent instruments or means which are helpful in leading an aspirant to experience the higher states of consciousness. Sadhana is one among the four unique concepts of Sanatana Dharma, the other three being, [[Dharma (धर्मः)\|Dharma]], [[Karma (कर्म)\|Karma]], and [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)\|Yoga]].	+	Sadhana (Samskrit: साधनम्) is a term widely used in the Vedantic and Yoga texts to primarily represent instruments or means which are helpful in leading an aspirant to experience the higher states of consciousness. Sadhana is one among the four unique concepts of Sanatana Dharma, the other three being, [[Dharma (धर्मः)\|Dharma]], [[Karma (कर्म)\|Karma]], and [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)\|Yoga]].

	Sadhana in the practical context is always used to indicate the essential preliminary (human) discipline that leads to the attainment of the spiritual experience which is regarded as the ''summum bonum'' (the highest good or Siddhi, i.e., completion and perfection) of existence. Sadhana includes all the religious practices and ceremonies that are helpful to the realization of spiritual experience, and therefore may be regarded as the practical side of religion, as distinguished from the discussion of the theories of the relation of divinity to man and the universe and other such topics which constitute the theoretical aspects in the domain of philosophy. Sadhana is that by which "Siddhi" or perfection is attained i.e., the instrument of perfection.<ref name=":0">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 21-24)</ref>		Sadhana in the practical context is always used to indicate the essential preliminary (human) discipline that leads to the attainment of the spiritual experience which is regarded as the ''summum bonum'' (the highest good or Siddhi, i.e., completion and perfection) of existence. Sadhana includes all the religious practices and ceremonies that are helpful to the realization of spiritual experience, and therefore may be regarded as the practical side of religion, as distinguished from the discussion of the theories of the relation of divinity to man and the universe and other such topics which constitute the theoretical aspects in the domain of philosophy. Sadhana is that by which "Siddhi" or perfection is attained i.e., the instrument of perfection.<ref name=":0">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 21-24)</ref>

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 Meaning: O! Raghava, there are two ways of destroying or controlling the mind (chitta), namely Yoga and Jnana. Yoga is suppression of the mental states, while jnana is right perception. Some are incapable of attaining yoga; others cannot have jnana. It is because of this fact that Paramashiva spoke of these two methods.<ref name=":5" />
-These two, Jnana and Yoga or rather Jnana and Karma, are the high roads to the attainment of adhyatmik success. For men of mental attainments, jnana or vicara is efficacious. The Buddhi controls the mind, and the mind controls the sense-organs. Here the order of things follows a natural path, in that the conquest of the body by the mind, of the mind by the buddhi - is a permanent change, it is the path of Jnana. Yoga methods are to control the mind primarily through physical and physiological processes. It is well known that the mind is intimately connected with the body, and it is normally expected that the regulation of the physical and physiological processes would lead to a corresponding regulation of the mental processes. The Yoga system, the Tantrika method and the Bhakti-marga come under the second form, of Sadhana, viz., seeking to control the mind (higher subtle centre) by means of the body and its processes (lower and gross manifestation). Herein lies the special achievement of the Sanatana Dharma principles - in that they have a course ready for everybody who seeks spiritual progress. Any process or condition, whether physiological or mental, that helps to induce a meditative, serene and balanced state of the inner Self - where the spiritual realization, the consciousness of unity with the Divine becomes possible - has been regarded as of immense value for the sadhaka or the person who seeks spiritual advancement.<ref name=":5" />
+These two, Jnana and Yoga or rather Jnana and Karma, are the high roads to the attainment of adhyatmik success. For men of mental attainments, jnana or vicara is efficacious. The Buddhi controls the mind, and the mind controls the sense-organs. Here the order of things follows a natural path, in that the conquest of the body by the mind, of the mind by the buddhi - is a permanent change, it is the path of Jnana. Yoga methods are to control the mind primarily through physical and physiological processes. It is well known that the [[Manas (मनः)|mind]] is intimately connected with the body, and it is normally expected that the regulation of the physical and physiological processes would lead to a corresponding regulation of the mental processes. The Yoga system, the Tantrika method and the Bhakti-marga come under the second form, of Sadhana, viz., seeking to control the mind (higher subtle centre) by means of the body and its processes (lower and gross manifestation). Herein lies the special achievement of the Sanatana Dharma principles - in that they have a course ready for everybody who seeks spiritual progress. Any process or condition, whether physiological or mental, that helps to induce a meditative, serene and balanced state of the inner Self - where the spiritual realization, the consciousness of unity with the Divine becomes possible - has been regarded as of immense value for the sadhaka or the person who seeks spiritual advancement.<ref name=":5" />
 The Bhakti line of Sadhana lies intermediate between Jnana and Karma. It does not, like Karma, rely entirely upon the bodily processes and seek to control the higher mental centres by the lower bodily activities; nor, like Jnana, does it solely rest upon the transcendent functioning of reason. It seeks to elevate human consciousness through the divine emotion of love which subdues all lower passions and impulses. Bhakti combines law with love, vidhi (obligatory rites and processes) with raga (spontaneous love), and thus it seeks help from the body and its processes also. As it combines both forms of Sadhana, viz., controlling the higher by the lower and also the lower by the higher—it also achieves its end quickly.<ref name=":5" />

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 ==== Sadhya in Visistadvaita Sampradaya ====
-The Absolute of Visistadvaitam is characterised by its attributes of the sentient and the non-sentient unlike that of the undifferentiated Brahman of Advaita. Desika affirms that the study of vedantic reality as tattva relates to only one Absolute, the, Brahman characterized by its modal expressions of the chit and the achit.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>अशेषचिदचित्प्रकारं ब्रह्मैकमेव तत्त्वम्। (Nyaya. Sidd. Page 187)</blockquote>Sri. Ramanujacharya comes to the conclusion of one Supreme Reality on different grounds of visistaikya. ‘Brahman is qualified by plurality but is not itself plural. The individual selves as well as matter, though really different from Brahman, the Supreme self, form one with it being its attributes. Ramanuja explains the relationship of the world with Brahman in a realistic way following the parishkrita saktivada according to which the chit and the achit are admitted as the shakti of the Supreme or attributes inseparable and powerful of action. the philosophy of Ramanujacharya is established in the central thought that Brahman is the ground of all existence and that all other entities exist to glorify it.<ref>Srinivasachari, P. N. (1943) ''The Philosophy of Visistadvaita.'' Adyar: The Adyar Library</ref><ref name=":2" />
+The Absolute of Visistadvaitam is characterised by its attributes of the sentient and the non-sentient unlike that of the undifferentiated Brahman of Advaita. Desika affirms that the study of vedantic reality as tattva relates to only one Absolute, the, Brahman characterized by its modal expressions of the chit and the achit.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>अशेषचिदचित्प्रकारं ब्रह्मैकमेव तत्त्वम्। (Nyaya. Sidd. Page 187)</blockquote>Sri. Ramanujacharya comes to the conclusion of one Supreme Reality on different grounds of visistaikya. ‘Brahman is qualified by plurality but is not itself plural. The individual selves as well as matter, though really different from Brahman, the Supreme self, form one with it being its attributes. Ramanujacharya explains the relationship of the world with Brahman in a realistic way following the parishkrita saktivada according to which the chit (चित्) and the achit (अचित्) are admitted as the shakti of the Supreme or attributes inseparable and powerful of action. In the Sribhashyam, Ramanujacharya quotes<blockquote>पुरुषः स परः पार्थ भक्त्या लभ्यस्त्वनन्यया । यस्यान्तःस्थानि भूतानि येन सर्वमिदं ततम् ॥ ८-२२॥ (Bhag. Gita. 8.22)</blockquote>Meaning: That Highest Purusha, O Partha, is attainable by unswerving Bhakti (devotion to Him) alone, within whom all beings dwell, by whom all this is pervaded.
 ==== Sadhya in Dvaita Sampradaya ====

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-Sadhana (Samskrit: साधना) is a term widely used in the Vedantic and Yoga texts to primarily represent instruments or means which are helpful in leading an aspirant to experience the higher states of consciousness.
+Sadhana (Samskrit: साधना) is a term widely used in the Vedantic and Yoga texts to primarily represent instruments or means which are helpful in leading an aspirant to experience the higher states of consciousness. Sadhana is one among the four unique concepts of Sanatana Dharma, the other three being, [[Dharma (धर्मः)|Dharma]], [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]], and [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]].
 Sadhana in the practical context is always used to indicate the essential preliminary (human) discipline that leads to the attainment of the spiritual experience which is regarded as the ''summum bonum'' (the highest good or Siddhi, i.e., completion and perfection) of existence. Sadhana includes all the religious practices and ceremonies that are helpful to the realization of spiritual experience, and therefore may be regarded as the practical side of religion, as distinguished from the discussion of the theories of the relation of divinity to man and the universe and other such topics which constitute the theoretical aspects in the domain of philosophy. Sadhana is that by which "Siddhi" or perfection is attained i.e., the instrument of perfection.<ref name=":0">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 21-24)</ref>
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 == Sadhana related to Sadhaka and the Sadhya ==
-A Vedantic aspirant may be termed as a Sadhaka (साधकः) who has a goal (eg., Srimaha Vishnu, Brahman) or Sadhya (साध्यम्) and the means to attain the goal is Sadhana (साधनम्) which could include Bhakti, Jnana and Yoga margas.
+A Vedantic aspirant may be termed as a Sadhaka (साधकः) who has a goal (eg., Sri Mahavishnu, Brahman) or Sadhya (साध्यम्) and the means to attain the goal is Sadhana (साधनम्) which could include Bhakti, Jnana and Yoga margas.
 === Who has the Adhikara for Sadhana? ===
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 ==== Positive and Negative Aspects in Different Ways of Sadhana ====
-Summarized below is the divisional outlook of Sadhana into positive and negative aspects according to various ways
+Summarized below is the divisional outlook of Sadhana into positive and negative aspects according to various ways<ref name=":5" />
 {| class="wikitable"
 !Text/Sadhana Line
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 - mantra-chaitanya according to Tantrika.
-=== Sadhana - Margas ===
+=== Paths of Sadhana ===
 There is yet another classification of Sadhana into different ways based on the important [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]] tenets, namely,
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 In the previous section, we saw how worship has transitioned from externality to internality, a quality most unique to the human being. Whatever may be the path a sadhaka takes, he realizes that the finite, individual human being has an element of divinity inherent in him; and that the experience of the Infinite is not a foreign experience to him. The gradual unfolding of the latent, capacities of man in the direction of knowledge, power and holiness is the function and purpose of Sadhana.
-The mind is ordinarily engaged in diverse sense-oriented things, and because of its functioning in various directions its energy becomes diffused and fails to grasp truths clearly. However, when mental energy is conserved through concentration, un-common and wonderful powers are manifested by the mind. The highest development and purification of the intellect (Buddhi) seem to be the exact reflection of the Purusa or the Self which is omniscient. It is, however, only a reflection of the Self, and not the Self as it is in itself. Bauddik revelation is always dependent on some process, and Buddhi is only an instrument or rather a mirror for the revelation of truths. The atmic revelation alone is really free and independent, because it is revelation itself depending neither on any subject nor on any object. Buddhi becomes a fit instrument for revelation through concentration (dhyana), and in the samadhi or the sakshatkara state, the Buddhi merges into the Self which alone remains.
+The mind is ordinarily engaged in diverse sense-oriented things, and because of its functioning in various directions its energy becomes diffused and fails to grasp truths clearly. However, when mental energy is conserved through concentration, un-common and wonderful powers are manifested by the mind. The highest development and purification of the intellect (Buddhi) seem to be the exact reflection of the Purusa or the Self which is omniscient. It is, however, only a reflection of the Self, and not the Self as it is in itself. Bauddik revelation is always dependent on some process, and Buddhi is only an instrument or rather a mirror for the revelation of truths. The atmic revelation alone is really free and independent, because it is revelation itself depending neither on any subject nor on any object. Buddhi becomes a fit instrument for revelation through concentration (dhyana), and in the samadhi or the sakshatkara state, the Buddhi merges into the Self which alone remains.<ref>Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Page 46-48)</ref>
 [[Sadhana and Indian Psychology (साधनं मनोविज्ञानं च)]] are thus very intricately related topics that have significant implications on the personality and perspectives of a human being. Sanatana Dharma is based primarily and fundamentally in the actual living experience, its aim and emphasis always being the realization or anubhuti of the ultimate truth. Sadhana most certainly involves many psychological processes such as thoughts, ideas, facts, cognition, reality, sensation, truth or falsity, distinction between the subject and object, reasoning, intuition, knowledge and so on to bring about this realization or anubhuti.
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 Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology.<ref name=":72" />
-=== [[Sadhana in Sampradayas (सम्प्रदायेषु साधनम्)]]  ===
+== Sadhana in Sampradayas (सम्प्रदायेषु साधनम्) ==
-The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental  and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />
+The different systems of philosophy have prescribed various means for the attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental  and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection. Thus we have elemental variations in how people practicing a particular sampradaya take up their sadhana. While we have three or four major ways of undertaking sadhana, it is left to the choice of the person as to what suits him in following a particular path as long as the sadhana is under the tutelage of a Guru as prescribed in the texts.<ref name=":2" />
 == References ==
 [[Category:Vedanta]]
 [[Category:Yoga]]

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 ==== Sadhya in Dvaita Sampradaya ====
-Dvaita metaphysics considers the Supreme Reality, the Brahman, Vishnu is self-distinguishing Absolute Self. As such, He is eminently personal.<ref name=":3" /> Brahman is the ground (base) of the universe. The universe consists of chetana (consciousness) and achetana (matter). It is not superimposed on Brahman. Brahman is considered as the Atman of the world (body). The world is real and there are three senses in which a thing can be considered real. A thing is real if it has<ref name=":6">Raghavendrachar, H. N. (1941) ''The Dvaita Philosophy and Its Place in the Vedanta.'' Mysore: The University of Mysore. (Page 12)</ref>
+Dvaita metaphysics considers the Supreme Reality, the Brahman, Vishnu is self-distinguishing Absolute Self. As such, He is eminently personal.<ref name=":3">Paramahamsa, K. R. (2012) ''Dvaita Vedanta.'' Tirupati: Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. (Page 20-23)</ref> Brahman is the ground (base) of the universe. The universe consists of chetana (consciousness) and achetana (matter). It is not superimposed on Brahman. Brahman is considered as the Atman of the world (body). The world is real and there are three senses in which a thing can be considered real. A thing is real if it has<ref name=":6">Raghavendrachar, H. N. (1941) ''The Dvaita Philosophy and Its Place in the Vedanta.'' Mysore: The University of Mysore. (Page 12)</ref>
 # an existence of its own (satta)
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 The Bhakti line of Sadhana lies intermediate between Jnana and Karma. It does not, like Karma, rely entirely upon the bodily processes and seek to control the higher mental centres by the lower bodily activities; nor, like Jnana, does it solely rest upon the transcendent functioning of reason. It seeks to elevate human consciousness through the divine emotion of love which subdues all lower passions and impulses. Bhakti combines law with love, vidhi (obligatory rites and processes) with raga (spontaneous love), and thus it seeks help from the body and its processes also. As it combines both forms of Sadhana, viz., controlling the higher by the lower and also the lower by the higher—it also achieves its end quickly.<ref name=":5" />
+The Ashtangayoga of Patanjali, all the Vaisnava schools, the Tantrika and Pasupata forms of Sadhana, and the yajna forms of Sadhana as prescribed in the Vedas would all be classified under Karma-marga. Under Jnana, the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and the [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]] forms of Sadhana are included. In the present context, Bhakti-marga is elucidated separately.<ref name=":5" />
 === Stages of Sadhana ===
 One may note three distinct stages among various forms of Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />
-# '''Vaidika Yajnas''' - Involves dravya-tyaga (physical offering of material things and objects) and propitiation of the governing Devatas who are considered as the Almighty Power. Utmost importance is given to reverence and minutest details involved in the actual physical processes of yajnas. This kind of sadhana is best portrayed by the Vaidika yajnas - mostly Shrauta yajnas - as seen in the Brahmana literature.<ref name=":5" />
+# '''Vaidika Yajnas''' - Involves dravya-tyaga (physical offering of material things and objects) and propitiation of the governing Devatas (Agni, Surya, Vayu etc.) who are considered as the Almighty Power. Utmost importance is given to reverence and minutest details involved in the actual physical processes of yajnas. This kind of sadhana is best portrayed by the Vaidika yajnas - mostly Shrauta yajnas - as seen in the Brahmana literature.<ref name=":5" />
 # '''Upasana''' - Involves mental process of yajnas. Physical offering of materials and objects do not count as much as the feeling of reverence or worship. The bhava or the bhakti (devotion) becomes the most important element in worship (Bhavagrahi janardanah). Devatas who are the governing Almighty Powers, are also sought as the Holiest Personifications with divine love as the offering in various relationships between the worshipper and the worshipped. This is the basis of Sadhana advocated and elaborated in the Purana Literature. Here stuti of the devata, offering of phalam (fruits), patram (leaves), pushpam (flower) and toyam (water), along with love and reverence form the items of worship.<ref name=":5" />
 # '''Jnana''' - Involves vichara and jnana which occupy the most prominent place. This is spoken of as Jnana-yajna in Bhagavad-gita and said to be superior to all other forms of worship. Here the externality of Devatas is replaced by internality and philosophy, and the constant meditation of the Absolute with a view to its realisation becomes the chief element in the course of spiritual discipline. This stage is elaborated in the Upanishadic literature. The Absolute is now recognised to be not merely consisting of feeling and love and intelligence, but is apprehended as transcending all these and hence to be reached by the Atman which also transcends intellect, feeling and love. The Almighty Power, termed Brahman is not any foreign Power or even any Person other than our own selves, but it is our own Higher Self termed Atman. The process does not involve "reaching" or "attaining," as in attaining things other than ourselves, but unfolding our own latent infinitude and gradually experience the higher states of expansion (Brahmabhavasca moksah). This form of Sadhana is peculiar to the Vedanta. The Jnanin or the liberated is not a ‘spiritual freak,’ as sometimes a mystic is wrongly supposed to be, but the man or the super-man “who has grown up to the full stature of humanity and united himself with that source of Life which is present everywhere.”<ref name=":5" />
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 It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":72" />
-Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology.
+Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology.<ref name=":72" />
-== Sadhana in Sampradayas ==
+=== [[Sadhana in Sampradayas (सम्प्रदायेषु साधनम्)]]  ===
 The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental  and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />
 == References ==
 [[Category:Vedanta]]
 [[Category:Yoga]]

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 ==== Sadhya in Visistadvaita Sampradaya ====
-The Absolute of Visistadvaitam is characterised by its attributes of the sentient and the non-sentient unlike that of the undifferentiated Brahman of Advaita. Desika affirms that the study of vedantic reality as tattva relates to only one Absolute, the, Brahman characterized by its modal expressions of the chit and the achit.<ref name=":2" />
+The Absolute of Visistadvaitam is characterised by its attributes of the sentient and the non-sentient unlike that of the undifferentiated Brahman of Advaita. Desika affirms that the study of vedantic reality as tattva relates to only one Absolute, the, Brahman characterized by its modal expressions of the chit and the achit.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>अशेषचिदचित्प्रकारं ब्रह्मैकमेव तत्त्वम्। (Nyaya. Sidd. Page 187)</blockquote>Sri. Ramanujacharya comes to the conclusion of one Supreme Reality on different grounds of visistaikya. ‘Brahman is qualified by plurality but is not itself plural. The individual selves as well as matter, though really different from Brahman, the Supreme self, form one with it being its attributes. Ramanuja explains the relationship of the world with Brahman in a realistic way following the parishkrita saktivada according to which the chit and the achit are admitted as the shakti of the Supreme or attributes inseparable and powerful of action. the philosophy of Ramanujacharya is established in the central thought that Brahman is the ground of all existence and that all other entities exist to glorify it.<ref>Srinivasachari, P. N. (1943) ''The Philosophy of Visistadvaita.'' Adyar: The Adyar Library</ref><ref name=":2" />
 ==== Sadhya in Dvaita Sampradaya ====
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 # Bhakti-yoga
-Sadhana may proceed by emphasizing the subject or the object. The emphasis is laid on the object-factor by the Bhakti schools, while it is on the subject by the Jnana and Yoga schools of thought. The Yoga-system, again, gives '''primacy to will''', and the development of the subject is sought to be attained through the education of the will. It is the will that manifests the whole personality of man, and reason, being only a partial element in his constitution, need not be separately trained. The Kapila-Samkhya and the Vedanta, both preaching Jnana ascribe the '''primacy to reason''' which alone can control the other elements, because the other elements are subordinate to reason. Jnana and Yoga are thus two sub-divisions of the subjective  form of Sadhana—one intellectualistic and the other voluntaristic, and they preach two distinctly opposite methods of attaining the end. It depends on the person choosing the way, as not all are fitted for one, and some are not for the other (way). As Vashista says<ref name=":5" />
+Sadhana may proceed by emphasizing the subject or the object. The emphasis is laid on the object-factor by the Bhakti schools, while it is on the subject by the Jnana and Yoga schools of thought. The Yoga-system, again, gives '''primacy to will''', and the development of the subject (human being) is sought to be attained through the education of the will. It is the will that manifests the whole personality of man, and reason, being only a partial element in his constitution, need not be separately trained. The Kapila-Samkhya and the Vedanta, both preaching Jnana ascribe the '''primacy to reason''' which alone can control the other elements, because the other elements are subordinate to reason. Jnana and Yoga are thus two sub-divisions of the subjective form of Sadhana—one intellectualistic and the other voluntaristic, and they preach two distinctly opposite methods of attaining the same end. It depends on the person choosing the way, as not all are fitted for one, and some are not for the other (way). As Vashista says<ref name=":5" /><blockquote>द्वौ क्रमो चित्तनाशस्य योगो ज्ञानं च राघव । योगस्तद्वृत्तिरोधो हि ज्ञानं सम्यगवेक्षणम् ।। ८ (Yoga. Vash. 5.78.8)<ref>Yoga Vasishta ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB_(%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%AE Prakarana 5 Sarga 78])</ref>
 It is well-known that Vedas are said to have two important branches—Karma-kanda ([[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]] texts) and Jnana-kanda ([[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]). The Bhagavad Gita also speaks of two divisions—Karma and Jnana. <blockquote>लोकेऽस्मिन् द्विविधा निष्ठा पुरा प्रोक्ता मयानघ । ज्ञानयोगेन साङ्ख्यानां कर्मयोगेन योगिनाम् ॥ ३-३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.3)</blockquote>Meaning: In this world there is a two-fold path, as told earlier, O sinless one, the ‘Path-of-Knowledge (ज्ञानयोग)’ of the Samkhyans and the ‘Path-of-Action (कर्मयोग)’ of the Yogis.
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 Dvaita outlines the means, sadhana for realization of the supreme end, [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Sadhana is a progressive endeavour and it mobilizes all the resources of personality. Madhva assimilates into his scheme of sadhana the entire heritage of the '''Upanisadic''' thought, the bhakti literature such as the '''Puranas''', the '''Agamas''', and the '''Itihasas''' including the '''Bhagavad-Gita'''.
-The foremost and the ultimate factor that brings about man’s liberation, attainment of moksa, is the grace, prasada of Narayana according to the Dvaita Sampradaya. ‘Without Narayana’s prasada, moksa is not possible’ says Madhva. There are several levels of grace that confers this boon. ‘The grace that responds to karma is the lowest, that, which is in answer to disciplines such as sravana, is of the middle level, and that which rewards the precious possession of knowledge is the highest’. This prasada is an ever-existent reality. All that is required of human effort is to actuate it towards the granting of moksa. It is ultimately Himself through His grace, which is indistinguishable from His essence because of the principle of Visesa, that effectuates the summum bonum of man, moved towards that end, by the spiritual endeavour of the aspirant.<ref name=":3" />
+The foremost and the ultimate factor that brings about man’s liberation, attainment of moksa, is the grace, '''prasada of Narayana''' according to the Dvaita Sampradaya. ‘Without Narayana’s prasada, moksa is not possible’ says Madhva. There are several levels of grace that confers this boon. ‘The grace that responds to karma is the lowest, that, which is in answer to disciplines such as sravana, is of the middle level, and that which rewards the precious possession of knowledge is the highest’. This prasada is an ever-existent reality. All that is required of human effort is to actuate it towards the granting of moksa. It is ultimately Himself through His grace, which is indistinguishable from His essence because of the principle of Visesa, that effectuates the summum bonum of man, moved towards that end, by the spiritual endeavour of the aspirant.<ref name=":3" />
-What brings grace to operational manifestation is bhakti of the aspirant. Dvaita tradition defines bhakti thus: ‘Mahatmya-jnana pursvastu sudrdhah sarvatodhikah; sneho bhaktriti proktahtaya muktih nacanyatha’. The two constituents of bhakti are knowledge of the greatness of God and love towards Him. This love must be steadfast and surpass in its intensity all other love including self-love. It is that height of bhakti that could invoke the necessary grace of Narayana for the purpose of moksa. There are different levels of bhakti, four levels stated in the Gita. Only the highest bhakti is what brings about the prasada for moksa.<ref name=":3" />
+The Visnu-tattvavinirnaya lays down that ‘Visnu grants knowledge to the ignorant, grants liberation to the man of knowledge, and grants ananda to the liberated individual.’ Prasada is a continuously operative factor in spiritual life, and does not cease to be required even when the goal is accomplished. What brings grace to operational manifestation is bhakti of the aspirant. The two constituents of bhakti are knowledge of the greatness of God and love towards Him. This love must be steadfast and surpass in its intensity all other love including self-love. It is that height of bhakti that could invoke the necessary grace of Narayana for the purpose of moksa. There are different levels of bhakti, four levels stated in the Gita. Only the highest bhakti is what brings about the prasada for moksa.<ref name=":3" />
 Madhva is one of the greatest philosophers of bhakti. For him, bhakti is omnipresent, as it were, in spiritual life. His work Anuvyakhyana records thus: Bhakti generates knowledge; knowledge, in its turn, generates bhakti, which, in its turn, generates the direct perception of God. This perception generates bhakti, which brings about mukti, liberation.’ It is the first means, and the constituent of the last end itself. Jayatirtha says that ‘parama-bhakti’ is the level of bhakti that brings about the final liberating grace of God.
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 # '''Jnana-yoga''' - It is totally the way of knowledge. At this stage the individual has the conviction (chinta-visesha) that he is dependent on Ishvara and different from Prakrti. This leads him to Bhakti yoga.
 # '''Bhakti-yoga''' - It is the way of devotion. At this stage the sadhaka is required to have incessant thought of Ishvara. Such thought happens when the eight-fold condition (ashtanga-yoga) is satisfied namely, [[Yama ( यमः )|yama]], [[Niyama (नियमः)|niyama]], [[Asanas (आसनानि)|asana]], [[Pranayama (प्राणायामः)|pranayama]], [[Pratyahara (प्रत्याहारः)|pratyahara]], [[Dharana (धारणा)|dharana]], [[Dhyana (ध्यानम्)|dhyana]] and [[Samadhi (समाधिः)|samadhi]]. According to this school of thought, seven-fold discipline has to be practiced, Sadhana-saptaka, and Ramanujacharya quotes in his Sribhashya the Vakyakara who describes them as follows: तल्लब्धिः विवेक-विमोकाभ्यासक्रियाकल्याणानवसादानुद्धर्षेभ्यः संभवान्निर्वचनाच्च। They are viveka (विवेकः), vimoka (विमोका), abhyasa (अभ्यासः), kriya (क्रिया), kalyana (कल्याणम्), anvasada (अनवसादः), anuddharsha (अनुद्धर्षः). While ascertaining the fimdamental factors leading to Bhakti, Vedanta Desika points out that four factors namely (1) Viveka, (2) Nirveda, (3) Virakti and (4) Bhiti are essential for developing Bhakti.
-# Prapatti: It is the same as complete self-surrender to Ishvara (saranagati). It is the disposition of knowledge. It happens once at the death of the body. It puts an end even to prarabdha karma. With it the Self is liberated to go back to Vaikuntha. Every Jiva is fit to have it.
+# '''Prapatti''': It is the same as complete self-surrender to Ishvara (saranagati). It is the disposition of knowledge. It happens once at the death of the body. It puts an end even to prarabdha karma. With it the Self is liberated to go back to Vaikuntha. Every Jiva is fit to have it.
 == References ==
 [[Category:Vedanta]]
 [[Category:Yoga]]

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 === Who has the Adhikara for Sadhana? ===
-The entire humanity is meant for Sadhana as the animal world bereft of rationality is beyond its purview. The theory of evolution both ancient and modern acclaims the human being as the finest product of creation endowed richly with an enormous power of thought and deed that could be directed towards the attainment of perfection.<ref name=":2">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 2)</ref>
+The entire humanity is meant for Sadhana as the animal world bereft of rationality is beyond its purview. The theory of evolution both ancient and modern acclaims the human being as the finest product of creation endowed richly with an enormous power of thought and deed that could be directed towards the attainment of perfection.<ref name=":2">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 2-6)</ref>
 Man is not a mere compound of certain elements that appears by chance at certain times and disappears at certain other times without a permanent phase. Man has been the subject of study and speculation from very early times and seers with wisdom have arrived at the fundamental truth that he is an eternal principle different and distinct from matter. This revelation of the eternality of the self is the fulcrum on which the entire superstructure of Sadhana rests. So the psychology of the Jiva has to be studied and his relationship with the Universe has to be understood. This leads us to the understanding why [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|Moksha]] (includes the Atma jnana), the  Paramapurushartha, is considered the highest among the four [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|Purusharthas]] and is a unique goal of a human being alone.<ref name=":2" />
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 === The Sadhya ===
 It is indispensible for a Sadhaka to have a thorough understanding of the nature of the goal he aspires to achieve. He must know very precisely the full content of his ideal with all its implications so that his efforts may not be wasted or misdirected.
 == Sadhana Bhedas and Outcomes ==
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 # '''Angavabaddha Upasana (अङ्गावबद्धोपासन)''': This is a many-sided form of worship involving a plurality of details. The course is not yet single-centred, and materials for progress and development are gathered from many sources, just as physical development.  But although here the sources are many and separate, it is to be remembered that all of them have the same end in view. Shrauta yajnas, Anganyasa, Karanyasa, Mahanyasa, Laghunyasa, Kavacham of any deity such as Shiva, Vishnu, Devi etc., are a few examples of this kind of Upasana. Here the worship involves one (worshipper) to many forms.<ref name=":5" />
 # '''Pratika Upasana (प्रतीकोपासन)''': It concentrates on one particular form. It regards one symbol as the representative of everything. Just as the brain is the centre of the organism, so also does the pratika symbolise the source of the universe, and the worship of the pratika symbolizes the worship of everything.  Here the source is found out and worship is concentrated on this source, a transition from the ‘many’ to the ‘one.’ It is the common characteristic of all forms of Bhakti Upasana, viz., the Vaishnava, Saiva and Shakta. The pratika symbolises the one all-engrossing object of adoration, worship and love. It is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe and is present always in everything. The emphasis here is on the object and it is pre-eminently an objective Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />
-# '''Ahamgraha Upasana (अहंग्रहोपासन)''': Here the object of worship is not different from the subject himself. The Self is not to worship any (Devata or Symbol) different from itself because there is nothing different from the Self as given in the Brahmasutras - न प्रतीके न हि सः।।4.1.4।। Here the transition is to 'One without any division.' The transition from the dualism of subject and object to the oneness or identity between the two, viz., the Self and the Brahman is to be achieved. <ref name=":5" />
+# '''Ahamgraha Upasana (अहंग्रहोपासन)''': Here the object of worship is not different from the subject himself. The Self is not to worship any (Devata or Symbol) different from itself because there is nothing different from the Self as given in the Brahmasutras - न प्रतीके न हि सः।।4.1.4।। Here the transition is to 'One without any division.' The transition from the dualism of subject and object to the oneness or identity between the two, viz., the Self and the Brahman is to be achieved. Upanishads and Vedanta describe such upasana vividly.<ref name=":5" />
 In the first stage, the worshipper finds that ‘many’ are to be worshipped and worships them all ; in the second, the ‘many’ reduce themselves to the One and only the One Absolute is worshipped, but still the duality between the worshipper and the worshipped remains prominent ; in the third, even this duality vanishes.<ref name=":5" />
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 It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":72" />
-Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology. “brahman exists and brahman is the being” addresses the ontology, and knowing this – brahman exists and permeates everything – addresses epistemology.<ref name=":72" />
+Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology.
 == Sadhana in Sampradayas ==
 The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental  and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />

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+|
 |-
-|Bhakti
+|Bhakti (Vaishnava, Saiva, Shakta etc)
-| colspan="3" |Recitation of the name of the Krishna, Narayana
+| colspan="3" |Recitation of the name of the Narayana, Shri Vishnu, or of Shiva, Devi etc.
 |}
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 # Bhakti-marga
 # Jnana-marga
 The three great forms of Sadhana; Jnana, Yoga and Bhakti are not arbitrary divisions but based on important principles. Sadhana may proceed by emphasizing the subject or the object. The emphasis is laid on the object-factor by the Bhakti schools, while it is on the subject by the Jnana and Yoga schools of thought.<ref name=":5" />
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 It is well-known that Vedas are said to have two important branches—Karma-kanda ([[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]] texts) and Jnana-kanda ([[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]). Bhakti or Upasana is placed under Karma-marga and is not given a separate place. The Ashtangayoga of Patanjali, all the Vaisnava schools, the Tantrika and Pasupata forms of Sadhana, and the yajna forms of Sadhana as prescribed in the Vedas would all be classified under Karma-marga. Under Jnana, the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and the [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]] forms of Sadhana are included. In the present context, Bhakti-marga is elucidated separately.
-== Sadhanas in Sanatana Dharma ==
+== Sadhana in Indian Psychology ==
 ==== Karma Marga ====
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 ==== Bhakti Marga ====
 == Sadhana in Sampradayas ==