Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्) - Revision history

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 * Fruits of action (Phala)
 * Suffering (Dukha)
 * Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Isvara'''
 Nyaya Darsana seeks to establish the existence of Ishvara on the basis of Anumana (inference).<ref name=":6">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (1922) ''A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1.'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (p.362-366)</ref> It says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara. He is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. He supervises the work of Adrishta. He does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. He is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. He is endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. Ishvara is a Personal Being.  <blockquote>ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् १९ (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.19)
-न पुरुषकर्माभावे फलानिष्पत्तेः २० (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.20)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4])</ref> </blockquote>He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). Ishvara is One, a Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Creation involves the ordering of the eternal entities, which co-exist with Ishvara, into a moral world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit or demerit of their actions. All physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of human life.<ref name=":2" /> The Nyaya system admits that without the grace of Ishvara it is impossible for any Jiva to attain true knowledge or to reach the state of Moksha.<ref name=":4">Rejita, C. (2015) ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/401876 The Nature of Body and Soul in Nyaya Philosophy.]'' University of Kerala, Thiruvanantapuram (Chap. 2, p94-96)</ref>
+न पुरुषकर्माभावे फलानिष्पत्तेः २० (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.20)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4])</ref> </blockquote>He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). Ishvara is One, a Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Creation involves the ordering of the eternal entities, which co-exist with Ishvara, into a moral world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit or demerit of their actions. All physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of human life.<ref name=":2" /> The Nyaya system admits that without the grace of Ishvara it is impossible for any Jiva to attain true knowledge or to reach the state of Moksha.<ref name=":4">Rejita, C. (2015) ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/401876 The Nature of Body and Soul in Nyaya Philosophy.]'' University of Kerala, Thiruvanantapuram (Chap. 2, p94-99)</ref>
 '''3. Atman'''
 Atman is the first object of right knowledge in Gautama's list of Prameyas. It is a real eternal entity according to Nyaya. Desire (इच्छा), aversion (द्वेषः), volition (प्रयत्नः), pleasure (सुखम्), pain (दुःखः), cognition (ज्ञानम्) are its qualities. Desire etc., are proof for the existence of Atman.<blockquote>इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि  आत्मनो लिङ्गम् इति॥ {आत्मलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10)<ref name=":3" />
 तत्रात्मा सर्वस्य द्रष्टा सर्वस्य भोक्ता सर्वज्ञः सर्वानुभावी। तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम्। भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि। (Bhashya for Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Nyaya Sutra Bhashyam]</ref></blockquote>The object of the notion of "I" is the Atman. No cognition or recollection is possible without it. The eye cannot see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without Atman. There should be an agent to use the instruments (senses) and that agent is the Atman. After an object is seen, even if both the eyes are destroyed, the knowledge that Atman has seen remains. This knowledge is not a quality of either the objects or the senses. Mind is different from Atman. Mind is only an instrument of the Atman, by means of which it thinks. The self is the subject. Atman exists even when the body perishes, and the senses are cut off when the mind is controlled. There are infinite numbers of Atmas.<ref name=":1" /> Atman is the knower, the enjoyer and is an agent of action. Emotions and will are its qualities. It is a whole, cannot be destroyed, timeless, all-pervading and eternal.<ref name=":4" /> Atman is not transcendental consciousness and is different from Ishvara who is supreme. Each Atman has its manas during its empirical life and is separated from it at liberation.<ref name=":5">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Barnes & Noble Inc.</ref>
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 Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. <blockquote>तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः ।। २२ ।। {अपवर्गलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.22)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.<ref name=":1" />
-== Similarities Between Nyaya and Other Darshanas==
+== Comparison Between Nyaya and Other Darshanas==
 ==== वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika Darsana ====
-The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in Ishvara, plurality of Atman and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common, such as the padarthas.<ref name=":1" />
+'''Similarities''' - Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in Ishvara, plurality of Atman and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common, such as the padarthas.<ref name=":1" /> The Nyaya and Vaisesika recognize the reality of the world based on time and space and is composed of heterogeneous atoms, governed by the law of casualty and subservient to the law of karma.<ref name=":4" />
-==== साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya ====
+'''Differences''' - Nyaya recognizes four Pramanas or means of knowledge: Pratyaksha (perception), Upamana (comparison), Anumana (inference), and Shabda (verbal testimony). However, the Vaiseshika only recognizes two Pramanas: Pratyaksha (perception) and Anumana (inference), and it limits comparison and verbal testimony to perception and inference.
-==== योगः || Yoga Darshana ====
+Nyaya school identifies sixteen padarthas or categories which comprise all the topics of the science of debate whereas Vaiseshika darshana proposed a list of six padarthas ‘categories’ of objects: substance (''dravya''), quality (''guṇa''), motion or action (''karma''), universal (''sāmānya''), particularity or differentiator (''viśeṣa''), inherence (''samavāya''). The seventh one is non-existence (''abhāva'') as per Navya-nyaya scholars.<ref name=":4" />
-==== पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa ====
+==== साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya, योगः || Yoga Darshana and वेदान्त || Vedanta Systems ====
-==== उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa ====
+Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta regards the world as evolved out of Prakrti. Vedanta regards prakrti as the power of Ishvara. The yoga regards prakrti as independent of Ishvara. The samkhya does not believe in Ishvara. Samkhya system is based on the dualistic nature of reality, emphasizing the distinction between the self (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti). Purusha's connecting with Prakriti is the cause of suffering and ability to dissociate from Prakriti is defined as true knowledge by Samkhya. Duality and plurality, according to Nyaya is produced due to Buddhi (discriminative faculty).
-==== वेदान्त || Vedanta ====
+==== पूर्वमीमांसा || Purva Mimamsa ====
-== Application of Nyaya Darshana ==
+== Applications of Nyaya Darshana ==
 The purpose of Nyaya is critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology. The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail.

@@ Line 119: / Line 119: @@
 * Fruits of action (Phala)
 * Suffering (Dukha)
 * Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Isvara'''
-Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara.<ref name=":1" /> Ishvara is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. He supervises the work of Adrishta. He does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. He is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. He is endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. Ishvara is a Personal Being.  <blockquote>ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् १९ (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.19)
+Nyaya Darsana seeks to establish the existence of Ishvara on the basis of Anumana (inference).<ref name=":6">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (1922) ''A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1.'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (p.362-366)</ref> It says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara. He is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. He supervises the work of Adrishta. He does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. He is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. He is endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. Ishvara is a Personal Being.  <blockquote>ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् १९ (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.19)
 न पुरुषकर्माभावे फलानिष्पत्तेः २० (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.20)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4])</ref> </blockquote>He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). Ishvara is One, a Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Creation involves the ordering of the eternal entities, which co-exist with Ishvara, into a moral world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit or demerit of their actions. All physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of human life.<ref name=":2" /> The Nyaya system admits that without the grace of Ishvara it is impossible for any Jiva to attain true knowledge or to reach the state of Moksha.<ref name=":4">Rejita, C. (2015) ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/401876 The Nature of Body and Soul in Nyaya Philosophy.]'' University of Kerala, Thiruvanantapuram (Chap. 2, p94-96)</ref>
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 '''3. Atman'''
 Atman is the first object of right knowledge in Gautama's list of Prameyas. It is a real eternal entity according to Nyaya. Desire (इच्छा), aversion (द्वेषः), volition (प्रयत्नः), pleasure (सुखम्), pain (दुःखः), cognition (ज्ञानम्) are its qualities. Desire etc., are proof for the existence of Atman.<blockquote>इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि  आत्मनो लिङ्गम् इति॥ {आत्मलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10)<ref name=":3" />
-तत्रात्मा सर्वस्य द्रष्टा सर्वस्य भोक्ता सर्वज्ञः सर्वानुभावी। तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम्। भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि। (Bhashya for Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Nyaya Sutra Bhashyam]</ref></blockquote>The object of the notion of "I" is the Atman. No cognition or recollection is possible without it. The eye cannot see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without Atman. There should be an agent to use the instruments (senses) and that agent is the Atman. After an object is seen, even if both the eyes are destroyed, the knowledge that Atman has seen remains. This knowledge is not a quality of either the objects or the senses. Mind is different from Atman. Mind is only an instrument of the Atman, by means of which it thinks. The self is the subject. Atman exists even when the body perishes, the senses are cut off and when the mind is controlled. There are infinite numbers of Atmas.<ref name=":1" /> Atman is the knower, the enjoyer and is an agent of action. Emotions and will are its qualities. It is a whole, cannot be destroyed, timeless, all-pervading and eternal.<ref name=":4" /> Atman is not transcendental consciousness and is different from Ishvara who is supreme. Each Atman has its manas during its empirical life and is separated from it in liberation.<ref name=":5">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Barnes & Noble Inc.</ref>
+तत्रात्मा सर्वस्य द्रष्टा सर्वस्य भोक्ता सर्वज्ञः सर्वानुभावी। तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम्। भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि। (Bhashya for Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Nyaya Sutra Bhashyam]</ref></blockquote>The object of the notion of "I" is the Atman. No cognition or recollection is possible without it. The eye cannot see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without Atman. There should be an agent to use the instruments (senses) and that agent is the Atman. After an object is seen, even if both the eyes are destroyed, the knowledge that Atman has seen remains. This knowledge is not a quality of either the objects or the senses. Mind is different from Atman. Mind is only an instrument of the Atman, by means of which it thinks. The self is the subject. Atman exists even when the body perishes, and the senses are cut off when the mind is controlled. There are infinite numbers of Atmas.<ref name=":1" /> Atman is the knower, the enjoyer and is an agent of action. Emotions and will are its qualities. It is a whole, cannot be destroyed, timeless, all-pervading and eternal.<ref name=":4" /> Atman is not transcendental consciousness and is different from Ishvara who is supreme. Each Atman has its manas during its empirical life and is separated from it at liberation.<ref name=":5">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Barnes & Noble Inc.</ref>
 '''4. Sharira'''
@@ Line 141: / Line 141: @@
 '''6. Cause of Bondage and the Means to Emancipation'''
-Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Devesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows release (Apavarga).<ref name=":1" />
+Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana) is the cause of bondage of the world. It constitutes in thinking as my own self that which is not my self. Faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. Release <blockquote>बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम् ।। २१ ।। {दुःखलक्षणम्}
 '''7. [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or The Sixteen Categories'''
-One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. <blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम् तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ।। १ ।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.1)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>The sixteen categories are:<ref name=":2" />{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 500px; font-style: italic;|* Means of Right Knowledge (pramana)
+One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. <blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम् तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ।। १ ।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}
 * Objects of Right Knowledge (prameya)
 * Doubt (samsaya)
@@ Line 164: / Line 176: @@
 When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish.  Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity,  consequent transmigration and pains.<ref name=":1" />
-'''7. The State of Apavarga or Release'''
+'''8. The State of Apavarga or Release'''
-वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika Darsana
+Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. <blockquote>तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः ।। २२ ।। {अपवर्गलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.22)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.<ref name=":1" />
-साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya  (Kapila Muni)
+==== वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika Darsana ====
-योगः || Yoga (Maharishi Patanjali)
+==== साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya ====
-पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa (Jaimini)
+==== योगः || Yoga Darshana ====
-उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || Vedanta (Badrayana or Vyasa)
+==== पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa ====
-प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम्तत्त्वज्ञानात्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ।।१।{पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}
+==== उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa ====
-दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरा पायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}
+==== वेदान्त || Vedanta ====
 == Application of Nyaya Darshana ==

@@ Line 88: / Line 88: @@
 * '''Karma Cycle''' - As long as self is attached to the body and senses, it goes through the cycles of birth and death.
 * '''Moksha''' -  It is the state of refrain from all kinds of sufferings and bondage which arise because of the self’s association with body and sense organs. Knowledge of the sixteen categories or padarthas is the cause of Moksha, depends on the grace of Ishvara.
-=== Discussion of Certain Concepts ===
+=== Brief discussion about certain concepts ===
-'''1. Knowledge and Pramanas'''
+'''1. Jnana (Knowledge) and Pramanas'''
 Interpreting the term ‘knowledge’ Nyāyikas say that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge is valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
@@ Line 121: / Line 121: @@
 * Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Isvara'''
 Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara.<ref name=":1" /> Ishvara is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. He supervises the work of Adrishta. He does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. He is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. He is endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. Ishvara is a Personal Being.  <blockquote>ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् १९ (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.19)
 न पुरुषकर्माभावे फलानिष्पत्तेः २० (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.20)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4])</ref> </blockquote>He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). Ishvara is One, a Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Creation involves the ordering of the eternal entities, which co-exist with Ishvara, into a moral world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit or demerit of their actions. All physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of human life.<ref name=":2" /> The Nyaya system admits that without the grace of Ishvara it is impossible for any Jiva to attain true knowledge or to reach the state of Moksha.<ref name=":4">Rejita, C. (2015) ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/401876 The Nature of Body and Soul in Nyaya Philosophy.]'' University of Kerala, Thiruvanantapuram (Chap. 2, p94-96)</ref>
@@ Line 143: / Line 143: @@
 Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Devesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows release (Apavarga).<ref name=":1" />
-'''6. [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or The Sixteen Categories'''
+'''7. [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or The Sixteen Categories'''
-One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. The sixteen categories are: means of right knowledge (Pramana), object of right knowledge (Prameya), doubt (Samsaya), purpose (Prayojana), familiar instance (Drishtanta), established tenet (Siddhanta), members (Avayava), argumentation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion (Vada) wrangling (Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chala), futility (Jati), and occasion for rebuke (Nigraha-sthana).
+One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. <blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम् तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ।। १ ।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.1)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>The sixteen categories are:<ref name=":2" />{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 500px; font-style: italic;|* Means of Right Knowledge (pramana)
-There is, first, the state of '''Samsaya''' or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next comes the '''Prayojana''' or motive for discussing it. Next follows a '''Drishtanta''' or example Which leads to the '''Siddhanta''' or established conclusion. Then comes the objector with his '''Avayava''' or argument, split up into five members. Next follows the '''Tarka''' or refutation, and the '''Nirnaya''' or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further '''Vada''' or controversy takes place, which leads to '''Jalpa''' or mere wrangling. This is followed by '''Vitanda''' or cavilling, Hetvabhasa or fallacious reasoning, and Nigraha-sthana, the putting an end to all discussions by a demonstration of the objector's incapacity for argument.
+When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish.  Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity,  consequent transmigration and pains.<ref name=":1" />
-When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish.  Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity and consequent transmigration and pains.
+'''7. The State of Apavarga or Release'''
-Transmigration, which consists of the soul's leaving one body and taking another, is the cause of its undergoing pleasure and pain. A soul which is no longer subject to transmigration is freed from all pains. The soul attains release as soon as there is an end to the body, and consequently to pleasure and pain.
+Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.<ref name=":1" />
 ==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" />====
 The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in Ishvara, plurality of Atman and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common, such as the padarthas.<ref name=":1" />

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref>
 == Founder - Maharshi Gautama ==
-Maharshi Gotama (गोतमः), also known as Gautama and Akshapada, was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः).
+Maharshi Gotama (गोतमः), also known as Gautama and Akshapada, was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः). It contains references to the Samkhya, Yoga, Vaiseshika, Mimamsa, Vedanta and Buddhist systems of philosophy. It is clear from the early commentaries on the Nyaya-sutras that the author of the sutras was distinctly named as Akshapada. Both the Bhashyakara, Vatsyayana and Vartikakara, Udyotakara, affirm that Akshapada gave the Nyaya philosophy in a systematic way.  Padmapurana, Skanda purana etc., mention that Nyaya shastra was expounded by Gotama or Gautama.
 == Etymology ==
@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 == न्यायशास्त्रवाङ्मयम् ॥ Nyaya Literature ==
-Nyayasutra (न्यायसूत्रम्) by Maharshi Akshapada Gautama is the primary text of the Nyaya Darshana. As many as 12 bhashyas (commentaries) have been written on these sutras by various scholars of Nyaya shastra. The bhashyas and the bhashyakaras of the Nyayasutra are enumerated below.<ref>Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana (1921), [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.489008/page/n1 A History of Indian Logic], Calcutta University.</ref>
+Nyayasutra (न्यायसूत्रम्) by Maharshi Akshapada Gautama is the primary text of the Nyaya Darshana. As many as 12 bhashyas (commentaries) have been written on these sutras by various scholars of Nyaya shastra. The bhashyas and the bhashyakaras of the Nyayasutra are enumerated below.<ref name=":2">Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana (1921), [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.489008/page/n1 A History of Indian Logic], Calcutta University.</ref>
 {| class="wikitable"
 !Bhashya (भाष्यम् । Commentary)
@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 == Nyaya Siddhantam - Core Concepts ==
 === Salient Features of Nyaya Siddhanta ===
@@ Line 70: / Line 71: @@
 * '''Matter, time and space''' are all recognized as independent entities.
 * '''Knowledge is Objective''' - As an upholder of realism, Nyaya philosophy expresses that knowledge always deals with an object.
+*
 * '''Causation Theory is Asatkaryavada''' - Nyāya theory of causation is known as ‘asatkaryavada’ or ‘ārmbhavāda’. They viewed that effect is a new product produced/created by a cause but the effect and the cause are not one and the same. The effect is a new product and is not present earlier in the cause (i.e., cause is not transformed to effect). Again, both cause and effect are real.

@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 == परिचयः || Introduction  ==
 To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref>
-== Founder - Gautama Maharshi ==
+== Founder - Maharshi Gautama ==
-Maharshi Gautama (गौतमः) was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः).
+Maharshi Gotama (गोतमः), also known as Gautama and Akshapada, was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः).
 == Etymology ==
@@ Line 71: / Line 71: @@
 * '''Knowledge is Objective''' - As an upholder of realism, Nyaya philosophy expresses that knowledge always deals with an object.
+*
-* '''Causation Theory is Asatkaryavada''' - Nyāya theory of causation is known as ‘asatkaryavada’ or ‘ārmbhavāda’. They viewed that effect is a new product produced/created by a cause but the effect and the cause are not one and the same. The effect is a new product and is not present earlier in the cause (i.e., cause is not transformed to effect).
+* '''Causation Theory is Asatkaryavada''' - Nyāya theory of causation is known as ‘asatkaryavada’ or ‘ārmbhavāda’. They viewed that effect is a new product produced/created by a cause but the effect and the cause are not one and the same. The effect is a new product and is not present earlier in the cause (i.e., cause is not transformed to effect). Again, both cause and effect are real.
 * '''Ishvara''' '''is the Efficient cause''' - Ishvara is the efficient cause (instrumental cause) of the creation, He is the creator, sustainer and destroyer of the Universe. He has the real knowledge of all objects and events in the Universe.
 * '''Material cause of Universe''' - It is the eternal atoms of the four bhutas (earth, water, fire and air)
@@ Line 83: / Line 83: @@
 Interpreting the term ‘knowledge’ Nyāyikas say that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge is valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
-- Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. In order to be valid, Knowledge must correspond to reality. Valid knowledge is produced by four means of knowledge, [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], namely,
+- Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. In order to be valid, Knowledge must correspond to its object or reality. Valid knowledge is produced by four means of knowledge, [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], namely, प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।। ३ ।। (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Prathama Bhaga])</ref>
 # Pratyaksha (perception by the senses)

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 }}
 == परिचयः || Introduction  ==
-To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref> The distinguishing feature of Nyaya is its belief in the utility of analysis and in the reliability of reason, and systematically defending its standpoint against rival views. Some salient siddhantas of Nyaya include<ref>M. Hiriyanna, (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd.</ref>
+To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref>
 == Founder - Gautama Maharshi ==
 Maharshi Gautama (गौतमः) was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः).
 == न्यायशास्त्रवाङ्मयम् ॥ Nyaya Literature ==
@@ Line 60: / Line 61: @@
 == Nyaya Siddhantam - Core Concepts ==
-Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of Philosophy. A study of the Nyaya Darsana develops the power of reasoning or arguing.<ref name=":1" />
+=== Salient Features of Nyaya Siddhanta ===
-==== Discussion of Certain Metaphysical Concepts under Nyaya Darsana ====
+The distinguishing feature of Nyaya is its belief in the utility of analysis and in the reliability of reason, and systematically defending its standpoint against rival views. Some salient siddhantas of Nyaya include<ref>Hiriyanna, M. (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd. (84-105)</ref><ref name=":0" />
-'''1. Knowledge'''
+* '''Realism''' - Belief in the independent (even from our perceptions and knowledge) existence of the external world, i.e., the world is real. Hence Nyaya is described as realistic.
-Interpreting the term ‘jnana or knowledge’ Nyāyikas says that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge may be valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
+Interpreting the term ‘knowledge’ Nyāyikas say that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge is valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
 - Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. In order to be valid, Knowledge must correspond to reality. Valid knowledge is produced by four means of knowledge, [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], namely,
 # Pratyaksha (perception by the senses)
 # Anumana (inference)
 # Upamana (comparison)
 # Shabda (word or verbal testimony). It includes Vedic revelation.<ref name=":0" />
 - Invalid knowledge is defined as the wrong apprehension of an object. It includes smrti (memory), samshaya (doubt), viparyaya (error), and tarka (hypothetical reasoning). Memory is not cognition at the present moment, it is a represented one. Doubt is uncertainty in cognition. Error is false cognition not corresponding to the real object. Hypothetical reasoning is unreal knowledge.<ref name=":0" />
@@ Line 82: / Line 97: @@
 # The resulting state of cognition or Pramiti (प्रमिति)
 # The means of knowledge or the Pramana (प्रमाणम्)
-The Prameya, or the objects of which right knowledge to be obtained, are twelve, viz., {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 500px; font-style: italic;|* Self - [[Atman (आत्मन्)]]
+The Prameya, or the objects of which right knowledge is to be obtained, are twelve in number, viz., {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 500px; font-style: italic;|* Self - [[Atman (आत्मन्)]]
 * Body - [[Sharira (शरीरम्)]]
 * Senses - [[Indriyas (इन्द्रियाणि)]]
@@ Line 93: / Line 108: @@
 * Fruits of action (Phala)
 * Suffering (Dukha)
-* Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Brahman in Nyaya'''
+* Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Isvara in Nyaya'''
-Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of God. God supervises the work of Adrishta. God does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. God is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. God is a Special Soul endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. God is a Personal Being. He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). God is One, Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading).
 '''3. The Soul'''<ref name=":1" />
@@ Line 122: / Line 140: @@
 Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.
-==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" /> ====
+==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" />====
 The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in a Personal God, a plurality of souls and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common.<ref name=":1" />
@@ Line 139: / Line 157: @@
 दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरा पायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}
-=== Application of Nyaya Darshana ===
+== Application of Nyaya Darshana ==
 Nyayasutras lay emphasis on valid knowledge, reasoning and evidence and thus makes it relevant in various contemporary contexts such as various science and technology fields, law and justice, ethics, economics, media and communication. Here’s an exploration of its current utility:

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref> The distinguishing feature of Nyaya is its belief in the utility of analysis and in the reliability of reason, and systematically defending its standpoint against rival views. Some salient siddhantas of Nyaya include<ref>M. Hiriyanna, (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd.</ref>
 * Belief in the independent existence of the external world, i.e., the world is real.
-*  Nyaya maintains that the nature of Ultimate Reality is many and thus is described as Pluralistic in view.
+* Nyaya maintains that the nature of Ultimate Reality is many and thus is described as pluralistic in view.
 == Founder - Gautama Maharshi ==
 Maharshi Gautama (गौतमः) was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः).
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 == Nyaya Siddhantam - Core Concepts ==
-The purpose of Nyaya is critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology. The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail.<ref name=":1" />
+The purpose of Nyaya is critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology. The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail.
 Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of Philosophy. A study of the Nyaya Darsana develops the power of reasoning or arguing.<ref name=":1" />
-==== Discussion of Certain Metaphysical Concepts under Nyaya Darsana<ref name=":1" /> ====
+==== Discussion of Certain Metaphysical Concepts under Nyaya Darsana ====
-'''1. Knowledge'''<ref name=":1" />
+'''1. Knowledge'''
-Knowledge implies four conditions:
+Interpreting the term ‘jnana or knowledge’ Nyāyikas says that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge may be valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
-# The subject or the Pramata, the cogniser
-# The object or the Prameya (प्रमेय)
+- Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. In order to be valid, Knowledge must correspond to reality. Valid knowledge is produced by four means of knowledge, [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], namely,
-}}The Pramanas or the means of right knowledge are:
+# Pratyaksha (perception by the senses)
-# Perception (Pratyaksha)
+# Anumana (inference)
-# Inference (Anumana)
+# Upamana (comparison)
-# Comparison (Upamana)
+# Shabda (word or verbal testimony). It includes Vedic revelation.<ref name=":0" />
-'''2. God'''<ref name=":1" />
+- Invalid knowledge is defined as the wrong apprehension of an object. It includes smrti (memory), samshaya (doubt), viparyaya (error), and tarka (hypothetical reasoning). Memory is not cognition at the present moment, it is a represented one. Doubt is uncertainty in cognition. Error is false cognition not corresponding to the real object. Hypothetical reasoning is unreal knowledge.<ref name=":0" />
 Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of God. God supervises the work of Adrishta. God does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. God is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. God is a Special Soul endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. God is a Personal Being. He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). God is One, Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading).
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 दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरा पायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}
 ==References==
 <references />
 [[Category:Darshanas]]

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 Nyaya Darshana (Samskrit : न्यायदर्शनम्) is one of the most important darshana shastras from ancient times. The word Nyaya signifies going into a subject, i.e., investigating it analytically. In this sense of analysis, the word Nyaya is exactly opposed to Sankhya, synthesis. The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate, Vada-Vidya or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyaya. Nyaya is not merely formal logic, but a complete epistemology (a theory of knowledge).<ref name=":1">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 190-196</ref>
+{{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K03Ilp3IBa8&feature=youtu.be
 == परिचयः || Introduction  ==
 To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref> The distinguishing feature of Nyaya is its belief in the utility of analysis and in the reliability of reason, and systematically defending its standpoint against rival views. Some salient siddhantas of Nyaya include<ref>M. Hiriyanna, (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd.</ref>

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 == न्यायशास्त्रवाङ्मयम् ॥ Nyaya Literature ==
-Nyayasutra (न्यायसूत्रम्) by Maharshi Akshapada Gautama is the primary text of the Nyaya Darshana. As many as 13 bhashyas (commentaries) have been written on these sutras by various scholars of Nyaya shastra. The bhashyas and the bhashyakaras of the Nyayasutra are enumerated below.
+Nyayasutra (न्यायसूत्रम्) by Maharshi Akshapada Gautama is the primary text of the Nyaya Darshana. As many as 12 bhashyas (commentaries) have been written on these sutras by various scholars of Nyaya shastra. The bhashyas and the bhashyakaras of the Nyayasutra are enumerated below.<ref>Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana (1921), [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.489008/page/n1 A History of Indian Logic], Calcutta University.</ref>
 {| class="wikitable"
-!Bhashya (Commentary)
+!Bhashya (भाष्यम् । Commentary)
-!Bhashyakara (Commentator)
+!Bhashyakara (भाष्यकारः । Commentator)
 |-
-|Nyaya
+|Nyaya Bhashya (न्यायभाष्यम्)
+|Vatsyayana (वात्स्यायनः)
 |-
+|Nyaya Vartika (न्यायवार्तिकः)
+|Udyotakara (उद्योतकरः)
 |-
+|Nyaya Vartika Tatparya Tika (न्यायवार्तिकतात्पर्यटीका)
+|Vachaspati Mishra (वाचस्पतिमिश्रः)
 |-
+|Nyaya Vartika Tatparya Tika Parishuddhi (न्यायवार्तिकतात्पर्यटीकापरिशुद्धिः)
+|Udayanacharya (उदयनाचार्यः)
 |-
+|Nyaya Nibandha Prakasha (न्यायनिबन्धप्रकाशः)
+|Vardhamana (वर्धमानः)
 |-
+|Nyayalankara (न्यायालङ्कारः)
+|Shrikantha (श्रीकण्ठः)
 |}
-* Nyaya-Bhashya by Vatsyayana
+Other commentaries include
-* Nyayalankara by Shrikantha
+* Nyaya Manjari (न्यायमञ्जरी) by Jayanta (जयन्तः)
-* Nyaya-Manjari by Jayanta,
+* Nyaya Bodhini (न्यायबोधिनी) by Govardhana (गोवर्धनः)
 == Nyaya Siddhantam - Core Concepts ==