Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्) - Revision history

Fordharma at 17:59, 8 October 2022

2022-10-08T17:59:54Z

Fordharma: added category

2022-08-15T15:40:39Z

added category

Fordharma: /* रसः ॥ Mercury */ added content and references

2020-04-23T17:41:19Z

रसः ॥ Mercury: added content and references

Show changes

Fordharma: adding content and references

2020-04-23T15:41:42Z

adding content and references

Show changes

Fordharma: editing image

2020-04-23T11:54:17Z

editing image

Fordharma: adding content, references, and images

2020-04-23T11:52:57Z

adding content, references, and images

Show changes

Fordharma: adding content and references

2020-04-22T19:37:56Z

adding content and references

Fordharma: /* रसः ॥ Mercury */ adding references and content

2020-04-21T17:46:34Z

रसः ॥ Mercury: adding references and content

Fordharma: adding content and references

2020-04-21T15:47:28Z

adding content and references

Fordharma: adding references from vedas

2020-04-21T09:24:08Z

adding references from vedas

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:59, 8 October 2022
Line 1:		Line 1:
−	~~{{ToBeEdited}}~~
	Mineralogy (Samskrit: धातुशास्त्रम्) or metallurgy discusses the chemistry of Dhatus (minerals), their properties, composition, reactions, combination products namely alloys and their uses. A related topic, mining of metals, involves the chemistry of extraction from ores, smelting and forging activities. History of mining in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to pre-Harappan period where the evidence of earliest settlements of farming communities using metal implements have been found.<ref name=":0">Singh. R. D, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 48 - ) </ref>		Mineralogy (Samskrit: धातुशास्त्रम्) or metallurgy discusses the chemistry of Dhatus (minerals), their properties, composition, reactions, combination products namely alloys and their uses. A related topic, mining of metals, involves the chemistry of extraction from ores, smelting and forging activities. History of mining in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to pre-Harappan period where the evidence of earliest settlements of farming communities using metal implements have been found.<ref name=":0">Singh. R. D, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 48 - ) </ref>

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:40, 15 August 2022
Line 341:		Line 341:
	== References ==		== References ==
	<references />		<references />
		+	[[Category:Shastras]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{ToBeEdited}}
 Mineralogy (Samskrit: धातुशास्त्रम्) or metallurgy discusses the chemistry of Dhatus (minerals), their properties, composition, reactions, combination products namely alloys and their uses. A related topic, mining of metals, involves the chemistry of extraction from ores, smelting and forging activities. History of mining in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to pre-Harappan period where the evidence of earliest settlements of farming communities using metal implements have been found.<ref name=":0">Singh. R. D, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 48 - ) </ref>
-Bharatavarsha is known for its use of gold and silver for jewelry and making ornamental vessels for domestic use with silver. Copper tools, such as axes, sickles are found in many archaeological sites indicating that many farming tribes and agricultural communities were using them. Metallurgy of copper and its alloys (brass and bronze) was highly developed during this period. A remarkable use of brass was made in the constructional work of an unfinished Vihara made near Nalanda (Bihar). Thus many archaeological revelations have unearthed valuable knowledge pertaining to sulbashastra (geology) and dhatushastra (metallurgy) of the ancients.<ref name=":0" />
+Bharatavarsha is known for its use of gold and silver for jewelry and making ornamental vessels for domestic use with silver. Copper tools, such as axes, sickles are found in many archaeological sites indicating that many farming tribes and agricultural communities were using them. Metallurgy of copper and its alloys (brass and bronze) was highly developed during this period. A remarkable use of brass was made in the constructional work of an unfinished Vihara made near Nalanda (Bihar). Thus many archaeological revelations have unearthed valuable knowledge pertaining to sulbashastra (geology) and dhatushastra (metallurgy) of the ancients.<ref name=":0" /> [[File:Sushruta's Surgical Tools Made of Iron.PNG|thumb|Ancient Surgical tools in India|450x450px]]
 == Introduction ==
 Metals, Minerals and ores are mentioned by the terms dhatu (धातुः) khanija (खानिजम्) and the chemistry involved is termed Khanija-rasayana (खानिजरसायनम्). A mineral is defined in modern terms as follows<ref name=":1">''[http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5802/1/1-24.PDF Minerals and Their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India]'' by Prof. A. K. Biswas</ref><blockquote>''"As we knew mineral is a naturally occurring crystalline element or a compound having definite chemical composition, and formed as a product of inorganic processes."''</blockquote>The scientific analysis of the archaeological and literary evidences points to the debunking of the aryan invasion myth in the recent times.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>''A number of experts have concluded that the collapse of the Harappan civilization was not on account of any 'foreign invasion' but essentially due to repeated floods, tectonic movement leading to the drying up and disappearance of the Sarasvati river, civil war, loss of trade etc.''</blockquote>Just like pottery, metals in antiquity is also linked to the history of a civilization. In the ancient past, the first metals to be utilized were those found in the native or elemental state, and then progressively those metals were used which could be easily extracted or smelted from their ores. The smelting of metals, which were more difficult to extract from ores, was mastered later. Most of the metals and elements indicated in the Periodic Table were in fact identified only in the last few centuries.

@@ Line 170: / Line 170: @@
 == The Eight Metals of Antiquity ==
-The present section reviews the important metals and interesting points about their role since ancient times.
+The present section reviews the important metals, their qualities, ores and interesting points about their role since ancient times. One of the ancient texts that gives a comprehensive view about metals is Kautilya's Arthashastra. Though a book on polity and administration, it gives a great deal of information regarding many aspects of life such as agriculture, economy, trade, metals and gems, occupations, weapons and spies and many other interesting out of the norm situations. A summary of the description of the ores, management of mines, rock veins of minerals, metals (gold silver copper and their alloys) with their extraction and working, as well as of alloys, information of fabrication of metallic artefacts are found in the text. Kautilya outlines the duties of the Superintendent of Mines (लोहाध्यक्षः) and gives him the details of the ores of metals and their fabrications in Adhyaya 12 of Adhikarana 2. Some common observations about the ores are also mentioned by Kautilya such as  <blockquote>सर्व-धातूनां गौरव-वृद्धौ सत्त्व-वृद्धिः ।। ०२.१२.०७ ।। (Arth. Shast. 2.12.7)<ref name=":6">Arthashastra by Kautilya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Adhikarana 2 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote>The heavier the ores, greater will be the quantity of metal in them (sattva-vrddhi)
-=== सुवर्णम् हिरण्यम् वा ॥ Gold ===
+=== सुवर्णम् हिरण्यम् वा ॥ Gold (''Aurum'' - Au) ===
-Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. However, not many gold artifacts dating to Pre-Harappan period have been reported although in Rgveda Gold and its alloys with Ag and Cu have been mentioned in many places, such as, 1-85.9, 88.5, 67.3; II-37.9; V-54.15, 57.1, 60.4; VIII - 7.27-32 etc. In Vedic literature this metal has been mentioned as Hiranya (हिरण्यम्) probably because of its high corrosion and oxidation resistance and the practice of its preservation through generations.<ref name=":5">Bhanu Prakash (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Metals and Metallugy: Page 80 )</ref>
+Arthashastra describes the qualities of the gold ore thus<blockquote>पीतकास्-ताम्रकास्ताम्र-पीतका वा भूमि-प्रस्तर-धातवो भिन्ना ..... बहुफेनधूमाश्च सुवर्ण-धातवः प्रतीवाप-अर्थास्ताम्ररूप्य-वेधनाः ।। ०२.१२.०५ ।। (Arth. Shast. 2.12.5)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>''"Those ores which are obtained from plains or slopes of mountains; which are either yellow or as red as copper or reddish yellow; which are disjoined and marked with blue lines; which have the colour of black beans (masha, Phraseolus Radiatus), green beans (mudga, Phraseolus Mungo), and sesamum; which are marked with spots like a drop of curd and resplendent as turmeric, yellow myrobalan, petals of a lotus, acquatic plant, the liver or the spleen; which possess a sandy layer within them and are marked with figures of a circle or a svastika; which contain globular masses (sagulika); and which, when roasted do not split, but emit much foam and smoke are the ores of gold (suvarnadhátavah), and are used to form amalgams with copper or silver (pratívápárthasté stámrarúpyavedharáh)".''<ref name=":7">Shamasastry. R. Kautilya's Arthashastra with English Translation. (Pages 111 - )</ref>
 A noble metal, gold, is found in the native state, and was used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metal. In human civilization it has been named as the most sinister and deadly metal although due to its ductility and softness it had proved worthless for making any war weapon.
-Extraction Process: Gravity separation or panning. When a pan containing the suspension is agitated under water, gold particles separate and settle at the bottom of the pan, while sand and soil are washed away. The second process known to ancient craftsmen is that of amalgamation with Mercury and recovery of gold by evaporation and distillation of mercury.<ref name=":5" />
+==== Extraction Process ====
 In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC.<ref name=":4" />
 * Oldest literary reference to usage of Gold in Rigveda
 * World's deepest gold mines are found in Karnataka state of India
-=== रजतः ॥ Silver ===
+The shining white colour, high ductility, high corrosion resistance and the non-tarnishing properties of silver attracted the attention of the primitive men and they found its use in making ornaments, utensils, decorative pieces and other house hold articles. It was popular as a coinage metal in the later periods after the smelting process was well established. Silver has been used in Ayurveda for its medicinal properties.
 Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.
 === ताम्रम् ॥ Copper ===
@@ Line 211: / Line 253: @@
 * Wootz Steel prepared by indigenous crucible process.
 * Monumental Iron pillars such as the one at Dhar in Central India and Kodachadri in coastal Karnataka and iron beams of the Konark temple.
 === Zinc ===

@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 Mention about metalsmith (कार्मारः) is made in Rigveda (9.112.2)<blockquote>कार्मारो अश्मभिर्द्युभिर्हिरण्यवन्तमिच्छतीन्द्रायेन्दो परि स्रव ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.191.15)</blockquote>A furnace, blower and fire - the setup used by a metalsmith has been described. Fire is described as a 'cradle of gems' that melts gold and the blower (ध्मातरी dhmaatari) or metalsmith blows to produce sharp flame in a furnace. <blockquote>यदीमह त्रितो दिव्युप ध्मातेव धमति शिशीते ध्मातरी यथा ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.9.5)</blockquote>Shatapatha Brahmana introduces the word "bhastraa" meaning a leather bellow used to blow air into a furnace (1.1.2.7, 1.6.3.16).
-Yajurveda was the first literature to mention gold (हिरण्यं), "shyaamaayasa (श्यामं)" or "krshnaayasa" which is black metal or iron specifically, loha or red metal copper (लोहं), sisam or lead (सीसं) and trapu or tin (त्रपु) in the Rudrachamaka.<blockquote>हिरण्यं च मे यश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 18.13)</blockquote>Atharvaveda describes the genesis of the shankha (conch) and mukta (pearl) in the oceans.<blockquote>दिवि जातः समुद्रजः सिन्धुतस्पर्याभृतः । स नो हिरण्यजाः शङ्ख आयुष्प्रतरणो मणिः ॥४॥ (Athar. Veda. 4.10.4)<ref>Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0% Kanda 4 Sukta 10])</ref></blockquote>Summary: This Atharvaveda sukta (4.10.1-7) extols the greatness of shankha as the precious gem which has taken birth from Vayu, Antariksha and other mandalas as the remover of all papa (sins) and protector from all kinds of ailments, remover of poverty and unforseen disasters. Shankha first arose in the celestial worlds and then from the oceans on earth.<ref>Atharvaveda Subodh Bhashya, Volume 1 (Pages 163-164)</ref>
+Yajurveda was the first literature to mention gold (हिरण्यं), "shyaamaayasa (श्यामं)" or "krshnaayasa" which is black metal or iron specifically, loha or red metal copper (लोहं), sisam or lead (सीसं) and trapu or tin (त्रपु) in the Rudrachamaka, clearly mentions the production of metals from yajna. Agni clearly has a vital role in the extraction and working of metals. <blockquote>हिरण्यं च मे यश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 18.13)</blockquote>Atharvaveda describes the genesis of the shankha (conch) and mukta (pearl) in the oceans.<blockquote>दिवि जातः समुद्रजः सिन्धुतस्पर्याभृतः । स नो हिरण्यजाः शङ्ख आयुष्प्रतरणो मणिः ॥४॥ (Athar. Veda. 4.10.4)<ref>Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0% Kanda 4 Sukta 10])</ref></blockquote>Summary: This Atharvaveda sukta (4.10.1-7) extols the greatness of shankha as the precious gem which has taken birth from Vayu, Antariksha and other mandalas as the remover of all papa (sins) and protector from all kinds of ailments, remover of poverty and unforseen disasters. Shankha first arose in the celestial worlds and then from the oceans on earth.<ref>Atharvaveda Subodh Bhashya, Volume 1 (Pages 163-164)</ref>
 Chandogya Upanisad recognised that metals have intrinsic properties irrespective of the shapes that these may assume (Cha. Up 6.1.5 & 6). It stipulated that one can join gold with the help of borax, lead with the help of tin 'etc.<blockquote>तद्यथा लवणेन सुवर्णँ सन्दध्यात्सुवर्णेन रजतँ रजतेन त्रपु त्रपुणा सीसँ सीसेन लोहं लोहेन दारु दारु चर्मणा ॥ ७ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 4.17.7)<ref>Chandogya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4 Khanda 17])</ref></blockquote>Summary: Just as one would join together (pieces of) gold by borax, by gold silver, by silver tin, by tin lead, by lead iron, by iron wood or by leather.<ref>Mm. Ganganath Jha. (1923) ''Chhandogya Upanishad and Sri Sankara's Commentary.'' Madras: The India Printing Press. (Page 261)</ref>
@@ Line 169: / Line 169: @@
 The commonly used eight metals in antiquity are gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc and mercury.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref>
-== The Ores of Metals ==
+== The Eight Metals of Antiquity ==
 The present section reviews the important metals and interesting points about their role since ancient times.
-=== सुवर्णम् रजतश्च ॥ Gold and Silver ===
+=== सुवर्णम् हिरण्यम् वा ॥ Gold ===
-Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and were used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals.  In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC. Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.
+Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. However, not many gold artifacts dating to Pre-Harappan period have been reported although in Rgveda Gold and its alloys with Ag and Cu have been mentioned in many places, such as, 1-85.9, 88.5, 67.3; II-37.9; V-54.15, 57.1, 60.4; VIII - 7.27-32 etc. In Vedic literature this metal has been mentioned as Hiranya (हिरण्यम्) probably because of its high corrosion and oxidation resistance and the practice of its preservation through generations.<ref name=":5">Bhanu Prakash (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Metals and Metallugy: Page 80 )</ref>
-* Oldest literary reference to usage of Gold and Silver in Rigveda
 * World's deepest gold mines are found in Karnataka state of India
 === ताम्रम् ॥ Copper ===
@@ Line 183: / Line 194: @@
 === रसः ॥ Mercury ===
 Mercury is a metal that has been of great alchemical importance in ancient times. It is a volatile metal, which is easily produced by heating cinnabar followed by the downward distillation of mercury vapour. Some of the earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation come from Indian treatises such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Ayurvedic texts have presented the science of using mercury, as [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]].
-* Vermilion or Cinnabar, mercuric sulphide, is used to make the red/maroon mark on the forehead as described in ancient texts of Sanatana Dharma
+* Sindhur or Vermilion was Cinnabar, mercuric sulphide, was used to make the red/maroon mark on the forehead as described by Charaka.
 [[File:Delhi Iron Pillar.png|thumb|Delhi  Iron Pillar " The Rustless Wonder"]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 Mineralogy (Samskrit: धातुशास्त्रम्) or metallurgy discusses the chemistry of Dhatus (minerals), their properties, composition, reactions, combination products namely alloys and their uses. A related topic, mining of metals, involves the chemistry of extraction from ores, smelting and forging activities. History of mining in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to pre-Harappan period where the evidence of earliest settlements of farming communities using metal implements have been found.<ref name=":0">Singh. R. D, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 48 - ) </ref>
@@ Line 15: / Line 17: @@
 Mention about metalsmith (कार्मारः) is made in Rigveda (9.112.2)<blockquote>कार्मारो अश्मभिर्द्युभिर्हिरण्यवन्तमिच्छतीन्द्रायेन्दो परि स्रव ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.191.15)</blockquote>A furnace, blower and fire - the setup used by a metalsmith has been described. Fire is described as a 'cradle of gems' that melts gold and the blower (ध्मातरी dhmaatari) or metalsmith blows to produce sharp flame in a furnace. <blockquote>यदीमह त्रितो दिव्युप ध्मातेव धमति शिशीते ध्मातरी यथा ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.9.5)</blockquote>Shatapatha Brahmana introduces the word "bhastraa" meaning a leather bellow used to blow air into a furnace (1.1.2.7, 1.6.3.16).
-Yajurveda was the first literature to mention gold (हिरण्यं), "shyaamaayasa (श्यामं)" or "krshnaayasa" which is black metal or iron specifically, loha or red metal copper (लोहं), sisam or lead (सीसं) and trapu or tin (त्रपु) in the Rudrachamaka.<blockquote>हिरण्यं च मे यश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 18.13)</blockquote>
+Yajurveda was the first literature to mention gold (हिरण्यं), "shyaamaayasa (श्यामं)" or "krshnaayasa" which is black metal or iron specifically, loha or red metal copper (लोहं), sisam or lead (सीसं) and trapu or tin (त्रपु) in the Rudrachamaka.<blockquote>हिरण्यं च मे यश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 18.13)</blockquote>Atharvaveda describes the genesis of the shankha (conch) and mukta (pearl) in the oceans.<blockquote>दिवि जातः समुद्रजः सिन्धुतस्पर्याभृतः । स नो हिरण्यजाः शङ्ख आयुष्प्रतरणो मणिः ॥४॥ (Athar. Veda. 4.10.4)<ref>Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0% Kanda 4 Sukta 10])</ref></blockquote>Summary: This Atharvaveda sukta (4.10.1-7) extols the greatness of shankha as the precious gem which has taken birth from Vayu, Antariksha and other mandalas as the remover of all papa (sins) and protector from all kinds of ailments, remover of poverty and unforseen disasters. Shankha first arose in the celestial worlds and then from the oceans on earth.<ref>Atharvaveda Subodh Bhashya, Volume 1 (Pages 163-164)</ref>
 == Metals and Gems ==
@@ Line 25: / Line 31: @@
 In his Brhat Samhita, Varahamihira gave a scientific explanation that the gems were caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth. <blockquote>रत्नानि बलाद्दैत्याद्दधीचितोऽन्ये वदन्ति जातानि । केचिद्भुवः स्वभावाद्वैचित्र्यं प्राहुरुपलानाम् ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.3)</blockquote>Meaning: Gems, they say, were born of the bones of the daitya Bala; while others state that they were born of Dadichi; yet others say that the wonderful variety of germs is caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth.<ref name=":3">Sastri, V. Subrahmanya and Bhat. M. Ramakrishna, (1946) ''Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita with an English Translation and Notes.'' Bangalore City: V. B. Soobbiah and Sons (Page 628 - 629)</ref>
 == Gem-Minerals ==
@@ Line 167: / Line 170: @@
 == The Ores of Metals ==
-The present section reviews the important metals and interesting point about their role with respect to the world metal usage.
+The present section reviews the important metals and interesting points about their role since ancient times.
-=== Gold and Silver ===
+=== सुवर्णम् रजतश्च ॥ Gold and Silver ===
 Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and were used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals.  In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC. Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.
 * Oldest literary reference to usage of Gold and Silver in Rigveda
 * World's deepest gold mines are found in Karnataka state of India
-=== Copper ===
+=== ताम्रम् ॥ Copper ===
 Early copper artifacts are reported from the pre-Indus valley sites of Baluchistan, the northwestern part of Indian subcontinent. Evidence of ancient mining of copper ores was from the Khetri region of Rajasthan in India dating to about 3rd-2nd millennium BC. Huge quantities of copper objects such as blades, arrow-heads, fish hooks were found from the sites of Pre-harappan excavations. It may be asserted based on evidence that copper metallurgy was developed indigenously in the Indian subcontinent well before 4000 BC.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
-* Ores of copper as pyrites was identified far before any other nation.
+* Ores of copper as pyrites was identified far before any other civilization.
 * Oldest reference of use of indigenous copper metullurgy is found in Indian civilization
-=== Mercury ===
+=== रसः ॥ Mercury ===
-Mercury is a metal that has been of great alchemical importance in ancient times. [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] was highly developed using mercurial compounds.
+Mercury is a metal that has been of great alchemical importance in ancient times. It is a volatile metal, which is easily produced by heating cinnabar followed by the downward distillation of mercury vapour. Some of the earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation come from Indian treatises such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Ayurvedic texts have presented the science of using mercury, as [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]].
 * Vermilion or Cinnabar, mercuric sulphide, is used to make the red/maroon mark on the forehead as described in ancient texts of Sanatana Dharma
-=== Iron ===
+=== सीसम् ॥ Lead ===
-=== Lead ===
+=== Zinc ===
 == References ==
 <references />

@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 Alchemy was one of the chief areas for the exploration of mercurial compounds, as specialists in medicine like Charaka, believed in the search for the ideal rasa or elixir which could prolong life indefinitely. They believed in therapeutic values of organic as well as inorganic materials such as metals and metallic compounds; they also aspired to convert base metals into gold. This alchemical dream was boosted when Nagarjuna claimed (Rasaratnakara - 1.3) that zinc ore roasted thrice with copper converts the latter into 'gold'. However, it was gold-like, brilliant yellow brass that came into existence.<ref name=":1" />
-Many textual evidences which speak about gems, minerals and metals include the Rig and Yajurvedic references, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira, Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna, Rasarnava, Ratnapariksha, Rasaratnasamucchaya and Agastimata.
+Many textual evidences which speak about gems, minerals and metals include the Rig and Yajurvedic references of antiquity, while early pre-christian era texts such as Kautilya's Arthashastra deal extensively about the ratnas or gems apart from other untraced books like Mahakala or Vyaadi. Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna traced to 2nd century A.D. and Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira of 5th century throw light on many aspects of ratnapariksha. The pre-modern texts like Vagbhata's Ashtangahridaya, Rasarnava (12th Century A.D.), Ratnapariksha by Buddhabhatta, Rasaratnasamucchaya and Agastimata are exclusive medieval texts which are quite valuable even in present day to adapt and improvise the chemical techniques followed in the present day.
 Ratnapariksa and Agastimata narrated the legend that gems had been derived from the body of the slain demon Bala: diamond from his bones, pearl from the teeth, ruby from the blood, sapphire from the eyes, emerald from the bile etc. The mythical bird Garuda had taken the green bile of the demon in its  mouth and then vomitted it (hence the name Garutmata and Garudodgaara) on a mountain on the sea- coast near a desert 'beyond Barbara country’. Both Ratnapariksha and Agastimata mentioned Garuda as the ruler of the serpents hence called pannagadhipah. Panna also means something fallen down or dropped. Thus, the dropped bile or the green emerald also came to be known as panna.<ref name=":2">Biswas, Arun Kumar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 225 - 255)</ref>
 In his Brhat Samhita, Varahamihira gave a scientific explanation that the gems were caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth. <blockquote>रत्नानि बलाद्दैत्याद्दधीचितोऽन्ये वदन्ति जातानि । केचिद्भुवः स्वभावाद्वैचित्र्यं प्राहुरुपलानाम् ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.3)</blockquote>Meaning: Gems, they say, were born of the bones of the daitya Bala; while others state that they were born of Dadichi; yet others say that the wonderful variety of germs is caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth.<ref name=":3">Sastri, V. Subrahmanya and Bhat. M. Ramakrishna, (1946) ''Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita with an English Translation and Notes.'' Bangalore City: V. B. Soobbiah and Sons (Page 628 - 629)</ref>
 == Gem-Minerals ==
-Description of the essential qualities of gems is <blockquote>वज्रैन्द्रनील-मरकतकर्केतरपद्मरागरुधिरऽख्याः ।  वैदूर्य[क्.वैडूर्य]पुलकविमलकराजमणिस्फटिकशशिकान्ताः ।। </blockquote><blockquote>सौगन्धिक-गोमेदक-शङ्ख-महानील-पुष्परागऽख्याः । ब्रह्ममणि-ज्योतीरस-सस्यक-मुक्ता-प्रवालानि ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.4-5)</blockquote>Meaning: The following are the gems: Vajra (Diamonds), Indranila (Sapphire), Marakata (Emerald), Arkata (Agate), Padmaraga (Ruby), Rudhira (Blood-stone), Vaidurya (Beryl), Pulaka (Amethyst), Vimalaka, Rajamani, Spatika (Quartz), Shashikanta (moon-gem), Saugandhika, Gomedaka (Zircon), Shankha (Conch Shell), Mahanila (Azure), Pushparaga (Topaz), Brahma-mani, Jyoteerasa, Sasyaka, Mukta (Pearl), Pravala (Coral).<ref name=":3" />
+Earliest complete description of the gems is given in texts such as Arthashastra and Brhat Samhita.  <blockquote>वज्रैन्द्रनील-मरकतकर्केतरपद्मरागरुधिरऽख्याः ।  वैदूर्य[क्.वैडूर्य]पुलकविमलकराजमणिस्फटिकशशिकान्ताः ।। </blockquote><blockquote>सौगन्धिक-गोमेदक-शङ्ख-महानील-पुष्परागऽख्याः । ब्रह्ममणि-ज्योतीरस-सस्यक-मुक्ता-प्रवालानि ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.4-5)</blockquote>Meaning: The following are the gems: Vajra (Diamonds), Indranila (Sapphire), Marakata (Emerald), Arkata (Agate), Padmaraga (Ruby), Rudhira (Blood-stone), Vaidurya (Beryl), Pulaka (Amethyst), Vimalaka, Rajamani, Spatika (Quartz), Shashikanta (moon-gem), Saugandhika, Gomedaka (Zircon), Shankha (Conch Shell), Mahanila (Azure), Pushparaga (Topaz), Brahma-mani, Jyoteerasa, Sasyaka, Mukta (Pearl), Pravala (Coral).<ref name=":3" />
 The names of many minerals and elements that we find in European languages were originally derived from Samskrit, having strong etymological roots. A few samskrit origins of minerals are as follows.<ref name=":2" />
@@ Line 153: / Line 167: @@
 == The Ores of Metals ==
-'''Gold and Silver''': Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and were used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals.  In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC. Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.
+The present section reviews the important metals and interesting point about their role with respect to the world metal usage.
-'''Copper''': Early copper artifacts are reported from the pre-Indus valley sites of Baluchistan, the northwestern part of Indian subcontinent. Evidence of ancient mining of copper ores was from the Khetri region of Rajasthan in India dating to about 3rd-2nd millennium BC. Huge quantities of copper objects such as blades, arrow-heads, fish hooks were found from the sites of Pre-harappan excavations. It may be asserted based on evidence that copper metallurgy was developed indigenously in the Indian subcontinent well before 4000 BC.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
+=== Lead ===
 == References ==
 <references />