Geographical Aspects in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त भौगोलिकविषयाः) - Revision history

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 इ॒न्द्रि॒याणि॑ शतक्रतो॒ या ते॒ जने॑षु प॒ञ्चसु॑ । इन्द्र॒ तानि॑ त॒ आ वृ॑णे ॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 3.37.9) </blockquote>Panchakrshtayaha (पञ्चकृष्टयः) as in<blockquote>अ॒स्माकं॑ द्यु॒म्नमधि॒ पञ्च॑ कृ॒ष्टिषू॒च्चा स्व१र्ण शु॑शुचीत दु॒ष्टर॑म् ॥१०॥ (Rig. Veda. 2.2.10)</blockquote>Panchacharshanyaha (या पञ्चचर्षण्यः)<blockquote>या पञ्च॑ चर्ष॒णीर॒भी॑न्द्रा॒ग्नी ता ह॑वामहे ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.86.2)</blockquote>Panchakshitayaha (पञ्चक्षितयः)<blockquote>इन्द्र॒: पञ्च॑ क्षिती॒नाम्॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.7.9)</blockquote>According to Pt. Kapil Dev Dwivedi, in the Aitareya Brahmana (8.3.14) we find an explanation about this term. The raja and praja (the king and the citizens) belonging to the purva (east), paschima (west), uttara (north) and dakshina (south) deshas (देश-s - places) along with the madhya-desha namely Kuru and Panchala rajyas constitute the Panchajanas (ध्रुवा मध्यमा प्रतिष्ठा). In this way Panchajana includes the the whole population  in the region. According to Sayanacharya, Panchajana includes the people of the four varnas and the Nishada tribes.<ref name=":6" />
-Traditional history knows of many different streams of tribes or peoples, but the two main streams are of those belonging to the Solar Race of the IkSvAkus, and those belonging to the Lunar Race of the AiLas. The AiLas are further divided into five main branches: the Yadu-s (यदु), TurvaSa-s (तुर्वश), Druhyu-s (द्रुह्यु), Anu-s (अनु) and PUru-s (पूरु).<ref name=":1" /> It is mentioned in the mantra as follows
+Traditional history knows of many different streams of tribes or peoples, but the two main streams are of those belonging to the Solar Race of the IkSvAkus, and those belonging to the Lunar Race of the AiLas. The AiLas are further divided into five main branches: the Yadu-s (यदु), TurvaSa-s (तुर्वश), Druhyu-s (द्रुह्यु), Anu-s (अनु) and PUru-s (पूरु).<ref name=":1" /> It is mentioned in the mantra as follows<blockquote>यदि॑न्द्राग्नी॒ यदु॑षु तु॒र्वशे॑षु॒ यद् द्रु॒ह्युष्वनु॑षु पू॒रुषु॒ स्थः ।
-यदि॑न्द्राग्नी॒ यदु॑षु तु॒र्वशे॑षु॒ यद् द्रु॒ह्युष्वनु॑षु पू॒रुषु॒ स्थः ।
+अत॒: परि॑ वृषणा॒वा हि या॒तमथा॒ सोम॑स्य पिबतं सु॒तस्य॑ ॥८॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.108.8)</blockquote>
-अत॒: परि॑ वृषणा॒वा हि या॒तमथा॒ सोम॑स्य पिबतं सु॒तस्य॑ ॥८॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.108.8)
+=== यदु The Yadu-s ===
 Mentioned frequently in the Rigveda, they are the people born in the race of Yadu. The Yadavas are mentioned with the Parshu, which according to Sayanacharya's commentary the son of Parashu. In the Dasarajna yuddha, the battle of the ten kings, the Yadus took part against Sudas.<ref name=":0" /> Indra is said to have crossed the ocean and brought back to the shores of Sapta-sindhu, the Yadu and Turvasa people who left their country and lived on the farther shores of the ocean as unanointed kings, probably in a new colony of their own (Rig. Veda. 4.30.17 and 6.20.12).<ref name=":1" />
-=== The Turvasa-s ===
+=== तुर्वश The Turvasha-s ===
 The Turvasas are mentioned along with the Yadu in many places. They lived in the west of Parushni i.e. in the region which existed between Vitasta and AsiknI. In the Rgvedic mantra 6.45.1, it is indicated that Yadu and Turvasas come from Paraavata i.e. a distant land or brought by Indra from that region. It is stated that later they merged with the Krivis, etc., to give rise to the Pancala people.<ref name=":0" />
 The Rigveda is little concerned with the IkSvAkus as a people, inspite of the fact that it has the second most important dynasty of TRkSis, a branch of the Ikshvakus. The word Ikshvaku itself occurs only once in the Rgveda as a name of the Surya (10.60.4).<ref name=":1" />

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:58, 16 December 2021
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	== References ==		== References ==
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 अत॒: परि॑ वृषणा॒वा हि या॒तमथा॒ सोम॑स्य पिबतं सु॒तस्य॑ ॥८॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.108.8)
-=== The Yadus ===
+=== The Yadu-s ===
 Mentioned frequently in the Rigveda, they are the people born in the race of Yadu. The Yadavas are mentioned with the Parshu, which according to Sayanacharya's commentary the son of Parashu. In the Dasarajna yuddha, the battle of the ten kings, the Yadus took part against Sudas.<ref name=":0" /> Indra is said to have crossed the ocean and brought back to the shores of Sapta-sindhu, the Yadu and Turvasa people who left their country and lived on the farther shores of the ocean as unanointed kings, probably in a new colony of their own (Rig. Veda. 4.30.17 and 6.20.12).<ref name=":1" />
 The Rigveda is little concerned with the IkSvAkus as a people, inspite of the fact that it has the second most important dynasty of TRkSis, a branch of the Ikshvakus. The word Ikshvaku itself occurs only once in the Rgveda as a name of the Surya (10.60.4).<ref name=":1" />
 == References ==

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 The Rgveda is treated as the storehouse of recorded valuable geographical information. It contains references to places, rivers, mountains, forests and oceans. To put it in a nutshell, more or less pertains to the area in the northern belt from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the west, the easternmost river mentioned in the text being the Ganga, and the westernmost being the western tributaries of the Indus rivers.<ref name=":1">Talageri. Shrikant. G, (2000) The Rigveda - A Historical Analysis. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan</ref>
-According to A. C. Das, the original areas occupied by the Rgvedic people was geographically described as the Saptasindhu, which included the beautiful valley of Kashmir on the north and Gandhara on the west. Its southern boundary was the Rajputana sea and the eastern boundary the Eastern sea covering the Gangetic trough.<ref name=":7" />
+According to A. C. Das, the original areas occupied by the Rgvedic people was geographically described as the Saptasindhu, which included the beautiful valley of Kashmir on the north and Gandhara on the west. Its southern boundary was the Rajputana sea and the eastern boundary the Eastern sea covering the Gangetic trough.<ref name=":7">Das, A. C. (1920) ''Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications </ref>
 == Mountains ==
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 Some important findings include the following
-*'''Thar Desert was once a sea (Rgveda 7.95.2):''' In the present day Rajasthan where we see a desert now, the ancient texts have indicated the presence of a sea in the same area.<ref name=":4" />
+*'''Rajputana Desert was once a sea (Rgveda 7.95.2):''' In the present day Rajasthan where there exists a desert, the ancient texts have indicated the presence of a sea.<ref name=":4" />
-*The '''rivers all join the seas''' or oceans is clearly mentioned in many instances in the Rgveda (1.71.7, 1.190.7 etc).<ref name=":2" />
+*The [[Four Oceans in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त चतुःसमुद्राः)|four oceans mentioned in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त चतुःसमुद्राः)]] form the boundaries of the earth where the people of those times lived (Rgveda 9.33.6, 10.47.2).
-*The '''presence of islands (Dvipas)''' have also been mentioned in the Rgveda (1.169.3).
+*The '''rivers all flow towards the seas''' or oceans and increase it's size is clearly mentioned in many instances in the Rgveda (1.71.7, 1.190.7 etc).<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> It is stated that not only the rivers can fill a big ocean but also rain should pour water upon it (Rgveda 5.85.6).<ref name=":0" />
-*It is in these seas that '''treasure''' is said to be available, namely gems and precious stones (Rgveda 1.47.6, 7.6.7, 9.92.44 etc).<ref name=":3">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)</ref>
+*The '''presence of islands (Dvipas)''' have also been mentioned in the Rgveda (1.169.3) and the islands are surrounded by floods.<ref name=":4" />
 *People had knowledge about the '''origin of''' '''pearls (मुक्ताः)''' the semi-precious stone, from the seas (Rg.Veda. 1.47.6)<ref name=":2" />
-*That the '''huge waves in the seas''' are caused by the air circulation was mentioned in Rgveda (1.19.7 and 8, 1.119.4 etc). Other mantras describe that a hurricane can destroy the ships in the sea.
+*'''Sea waves''' are described in Rgveda (5.78.8, 9.50.1, 9.80.5).<ref name=":0" /> That the '''huge waves in the seas''' are caused by the air circulation was mentioned in Rgveda (1.19.7 and 8, 1.119.4 etc). Other mantras describe that a hurricane can destroy the ships in the sea.<ref name=":4" /> So there is a prayer that the waves do not raise high (Rgveda 3.33.3).<ref name=":0" />
-*Presence of '''natural gases in oceans''' is discussed in Rgveda (Rgveda 8.102.4)<ref name=":3" /> It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.
+*Presence of '''natural gases in oceans''' is discussed in Rgveda (Rgveda 8.102.4). It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.<ref name=":3" />
 *'''Medicinal substances and food items''' from the oceans, rivers and mountains is well explained in this Veda (Rg. Veda. 8.20.25).<ref name=":3" />
 ==== Bhujyu Akhyayana ====
-Ancient Indians were explorers; thus shipping, marine travels, and trade-routes were well established. Many mantras are mentioned as reference for the Rgvedic merchants who navigated the four seas in quest of wealth.<ref name=":2" /> Merchants used to "plough" the seas with their vessels in quest of wealth.<ref name=":7" />  <blockquote>तं गू॒र्तयो॑ नेम॒न्निष॒: परी॑णसः समु॒द्रं न सं॒चर॑णे सनि॒ष्यव॑: । पतिं॒ दक्ष॑स्य वि॒दथ॑स्य॒ नू सहो॑ गि॒रिं न वे॒ना अधि॑ रोह॒ तेज॑सा ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.56.2) </blockquote>They offered prayers to the Ocean before undertaking a voyage (Rig. Veda. 4.55.6). Merchants possessed fleets of tradesmen whom they sent across the seas for the purposes of trade (1.48.3). The anecdote of Bhujya, the son of Tugra, describes about the sea-voyages. According to this legend, Bhujya undertakes a long journey over the sea at the direction of his father, Raja Tugra, to punish some recalcitrant islanders.<ref name=":7" /> It was during this voyage that he was shipwrecked and rescued by the Asvini devatas.<blockquote>अ॒ना॒र॒म्भ॒णे तद॑वीरयेथामनास्था॒ने अ॑ग्रभ॒णे स॑मु॒द्रे । यद॑श्विना ऊ॒हथु॑र्भु॒ज्युमस्तं॑ श॒तारि॑त्रां॒ नाव॑मातस्थि॒वांस॑म् ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.116.5)</blockquote>Meaning - This exploit you achieved, Asvins, in the oceans where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon, nothing to cling to: that you brought Bhujyu, sailing in a hundred-oared ship to his father's house.<ref name=":7" />
+Ancient Indians were explorers; thus shipping, marine travels, and trade-routes were well established. Many mantras are mentioned as reference for the Rig vedic merchants who navigated the four seas in quest of wealth.<ref name=":2" /> Merchants used to "plough" the seas with their vessels in quest of wealth.<ref name=":7" />  <blockquote>तं गू॒र्तयो॑ नेम॒न्निष॒: परी॑णसः समु॒द्रं न सं॒चर॑णे सनि॒ष्यव॑: । पतिं॒ दक्ष॑स्य वि॒दथ॑स्य॒ नू सहो॑ गि॒रिं न वे॒ना अधि॑ रोह॒ तेज॑सा ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.56.2) </blockquote>They offered prayers to the Ocean before undertaking a voyage (Rig. Veda. 4.55.6). Merchants possessed fleets of tradesmen whom they sent across the seas for the purposes of trade (1.48.3). The anecdote of Bhujya, the son of Tugra, describes about the sea-voyages. According to this legend, Bhujya undertakes a long journey over the sea at the direction of his father, Raja Tugra, to punish some recalcitrant islanders.<ref name=":7" /> It was during this voyage that he was shipwrecked and rescued by the Asvini devatas.<blockquote>अ॒ना॒र॒म्भ॒णे तद॑वीरयेथामनास्था॒ने अ॑ग्रभ॒णे स॑मु॒द्रे । यद॑श्विना ऊ॒हथु॑र्भु॒ज्युमस्तं॑ श॒तारि॑त्रां॒ नाव॑मातस्थि॒वांस॑म् ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.116.5)</blockquote>Meaning - This exploit you achieved, Asvins, in the oceans where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon, nothing to cling to: that you brought Bhujyu, sailing in a hundred-oared ship to his father's house.<ref name=":7" />
 Here we find the characteristics of an ocean well described. As soon as Bhujyu finds that his ships might break and sink, Bhujyu prays to the Ashvini devatas for protection. With their help he docks the ships to safety and praises the deities who protected his life.<ref name=":2" />
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 * they were well versed in constructing big ships of sizeable proportions
 * they were adept in navigating these big ships on the high seas
 == नद्यः ॥ Rivers ==
@@ Line 71: / Line 56: @@
 E. Bihar.
-'''Afghanistan''': The ancient place-name for Kandahar (कन्धार) that we find in the Rigveda is Gandhari (गन्धारि), and this name is a only once in the whole of the Rigveda. There is a mention of the wool bearing sheep.<ref name=":6">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 252-255)</ref>
+'''Afghanistan''': The ancient place-name for Kandahar (कन्धार) that we find in the Rigveda is Gandhari (गन्धारि), and this name is a only once in the whole of the Rigveda. There is a mention of the wool bearing sheep.<ref name=":6">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 248-255)</ref>
 '''Punjab''': The geographical area covering the present-day Punjab is identified to be the Saptasindhu region mentioned in the Rigveda by many scholars. It is the land of the five rivers enclosed between two more rivers: the Indus in the west and the Sarasvati in the east.<ref name=":1" />

@@ Line 47: / Line 47: @@
 Geological evidence goes on to show that there were actually three seas on the three sides of Saptasindhu, i.e., the Eastern, the Western and the Southern and the fourth sea logically must have been somewhere on the north beyond the Himalayas. There is a mention that a deep trough (sea) did exist at the foot of the Himalayan range in ancient geological times as per Mr. Wadia (in his Geology of India book). This trough or sea lasted through long ages during which it was gradually filled up with alluvium into which were embedded the remains of a rich varied fauna "of herbivores, carnivores, rodents and of primates, the highest order of the mammals," brought down by the rivers and streams.<blockquote>ये अ॑स्या आ॒चर॑णेषु दध्रि॒रे स॑मु॒द्रे न श्र॑व॒स्यव॑: ॥३॥ (Rg. Veda. 1.48.3)<ref>Rgveda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhitas-mandal-01-sukta-048/ Mandala 1 Sukta 48])</ref></blockquote>According to Dr. A. C. Das, geological evidence proves that such a sea did actually exist in ancient times, stretching from below the highlands of modern Turkestan towards Siberia on one side, and from the confines of Mongolia to the Black Sea, on the other, covering an immense area. This sea disappeared in comparatively recent geological times, leaving the Black Sea, the Sea of Aral, Lake Balkash, and an extensive depression low, dry and converted into steppes, as its remnants. The Black Sea was not at that time connected with the Mediterranean, and its western shores formed the Isthmus of Bosphorus linking Europe with Asia. On the confines of East Turkestan also there was in ancient times another immense Asiatic Mediterranean Sea, of which Lake Lobnor is the remnant. These stern geological facts are corroborated in Rgvedic mantras. We can see the effects of climate change reflected in the mantras and the disappearance of one of the four seas around the Sapta Sindhu, and the upheaval of a vast tract of arid desert in the South. Dr. Das's discussion about various geological evidences<blockquote>''"clearly proved the existence of the four seas mentioned in the Rgveda, round about the region, inhabited by the ancient Aryans, which included Sapta-sindhu on the south, Bactriana and Eastern Turkestan on the north, Gandhara on the west and the upper valleys of the Ganga and Yamuna on the east. The age of the Rgveda, therefore, must be as old as the existence of these four seas in ancient times."'' <ref name=":7" /></blockquote>The '''third sea''', according to '''A. C. Das''', once covered the area into which the Sarasvati river drained into, and which is now the sandy desert area of Rajasthan. P. L. Bhargava called this sea as the '''Sarasvat (सरस्वत् समुद्र) ocean'''. In Rigveda (1.164.52) it has been mentioned that Sarasvat river is filled with many medicinal properties and was the source of water for many lakes. In the sukta 7.96 the first three mantras are in praise of the Sarasvati river while the rest of the three mantras are a stuti to the Sarasvat sea. With many beautiful poetic comparisons the Sarasvat sea bears an important position during the Rigvedic times.<ref name=":4" />
+The '''fourth sea''', according to Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya, is called '''Sharyanavat (शर्यणावत् समुद्र).''' It has be mentioned along with the Paraavat (परावत्) and Arvaavat (अर्वावत्) seas (Rig. Veda. 9.64.22), thus considered as an sea. According to Hillebrandt, it is sea in the Kashmir region a remnant of which is the Wular sea in the present times. In the mantra 7.64.11, where Sharyanavat is referred along with the river Sushoma and as a place where the Soma creeper grows. Based on the association with Sushoma which is a northern tributary of the Indus river and as a place where Soma is found, it's location is inferred as the sea which is to the north of the Sindhu river.<ref name=":4" /> The term Sharyanavat finds a mention in Rigveda mantra 10.35.2 as follows<blockquote>दि॒वस्पृ॑थि॒व्योरव॒ आ वृ॑णीमहे मा॒तॄन्त्सिन्धू॒न्पर्व॑ताञ्छर्य॒णाव॑तः । (Rig. Veda. 10.35.2)</blockquote>According to Sayanacharya, Sharyanavat means the mountains of the lake Sharyanavat. According to him, Sharyanavat is a lake in the district of Kurukshetra. According to P.L. Bhargava, Sharyanavat is the mountain, which now surrounds the Kashmir valley.<ref name=":0" />
 It is time we delve deeper into the geological testimony which supports the vast antiquity of Rgveda stretching back to times immemorial.<ref name=":7" />

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 ====चतुःसमुद्राः ॥ Four seas====
-It is known that the present peninsular Indian subcontinent is surrounded by three seas (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea in the present terms). In many mantras of Rgveda there is a mention about "'''two seas (उभी समुद्रौ)'''" namely the 'पूर्व (purva)' which refers to the Bay of Bengal and 'पर (para)' samudra refers to Arabian sea (Rigveda 10.136.5).<ref name=":4" /> It is important to note that Rgvedic texts mention about the presence of a fourth sea in the northern region of India below the Himalayas. The following mantras mention the term '''"four seas (चतुःसमुद्राः)"'''<blockquote>रायः समुद्राँश्चतुरोऽस्मभ्यं सोम विश्वत: । आ पवस्व सहस्रिण: ॥६॥ (Rg. Veda 9.33.6)</blockquote>Here Rshi Trita prays to Soma to help him bring the vast wealth found in the four seas.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>स्वायुधं स्ववसं सुनीथं । चतुःसमुद्रं धरुणं रयीणाम् ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.47.2)</blockquote>Rshi Saptagu prays to Indra that the treasures available in the four seas  may be bestowed on him to make him prosperous.<ref name=":2" />
+It is known that the present peninsular Indian subcontinent is surrounded by three seas (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea in the present terms). In many mantras of Rgveda there is a mention about "'''two seas (उभी समुद्रौ)'''" namely the 'पूर्व (purva)' which refers to the Bay of Bengal and 'पर (para)' samudra refers to Arabian sea (Rigveda 10.136.5).<ref name=":4" /> It is important to note that Rgvedic texts mention about the presence of a fourth sea in the northern region of India below the Himalayas. The following mantras mention the term '''"four seas (चतुःसमुद्राः)"'''<blockquote>रायः समुद्राँश्चतुरोऽस्मभ्यं सोम विश्वत: । आ पवस्व सहस्रिण: ॥६॥ (Rg. Veda 9.33.6)</blockquote>Here Rshi Trita prays to Soma to help him bring the vast wealth found in the four seas.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>स्वायुधं स्ववसं सुनीथं । चतुःसमुद्रं धरुणं रयीणाम् ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.47.2)</blockquote>Rshi Saptagu prays to Indra that the treasures available in the four seas  may be bestowed on him to make him prosperous<ref name=":2" />.
 A clear reference to two seas ('''उभौ समुद्रौ'''), the east and west <blockquote>
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 वात॒स्याश्वो॑ वा॒योः सखाथो॑ दे॒वेषि॑तो॒ '''मुनि॑:''' । उ॒भौ स॑मु॒द्रावा क्षे॑ति॒ यश्च॒ पूर्व॑ उ॒ताप॑रः ॥५॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.136.5)</blockquote>Summary: ''"The Muni is the aerial steed and friend of Vayu, whom all the Devas feel an eagerness to behold and who dwells in both the seas-that which is in the east and that which is in the west".''
-According to A. C. Das, the Muni referred to here is identified with Keshi or Sun whose rays are like the golden hairs of an ascetic. The Sun is also compared to a horse in the Rgveda. Keshi or Sun dwells both in the Eastern and Western seas, because he is seen to rise from the Eastern sea and sink down into the Western sea. Now this Eastern sea could be none other than the sea that washed the eastern shores of Sapta Sindhu. It is over this sea that the Ashvini devatas preceded and heralded the Dawn, used to come to Sapta-sindhu, sailing in their boats which they left moored in the harbour on the sea coast (1.46.8). Further it was from the depth of these waters that the Sun was seen, from the shores of Sapta Sindhu, to emerge and ascend the sky (Rg. Veda. 3.55.1). These waters were, rightly regarded as "the birth-place of the Sun", and "the mother of the Asvins". The western sea into which Keshi or the Sun sank down to rest was undoubtedly an arm of the Arabian sea which, in those days ran up the present lower valley of the Indus along the foot of the Western Range and covered a large portion of the present province of Sind (presently in Pakistan).<ref name=":7">Das, A. C. (1920) ''Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications </ref>
+According to '''A. C. Das<ref name=":7" />''', the Muni referred to here is identified with Keshi or Sun whose rays are like the golden hairs of an ascetic. The Sun is also compared to a horse in the Rgveda. Keshi or Sun dwells both in the Eastern and Western seas, because he is seen to rise from the Eastern sea and sink down into the Western sea. Now this '''Eastern sea''' could be none other than the sea that washed the eastern shores of Sapta Sindhu. It is over this sea that the Ashvini devatas preceded and heralded the Dawn, used to come to Sapta-sindhu, sailing in their boats which they left moored in the harbour on the sea coast (1.46.8). Further it was from the depth of these waters that the Sun was seen, from the shores of Sapta Sindhu, to emerge and ascend the sky (Rg. Veda. 3.55.1). These waters were, rightly regarded as "the birth-place of the Sun", and "the mother of the Asvins". The '''Western Sea''' into which Keshi or the Sun sank down to rest was undoubtedly an arm of the Arabian sea which, in those days ran up the present lower valley of the Indus along the foot of the Western Range and covered a large portion of the present province of Sind (presently in Pakistan).<ref name=":7">Das, A. C. (1920) ''Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications </ref>
-We see that of these four seas, the Rgveda mentions about two, the 'पूर्व (purva)' and 'अपर (apara)' samudras very clearly. The Purva (or अवर-Avara) samudra also called as Arvavat (अर्वावत्) is where the sunrises and the Apara (or पर - Para) samudra also called as Paraavat (परावत्) is where the sun sets. The Arabian sea is the Paraavat sea where the Sindhu and its tributaries drain into. It however, ran up the present lower valley of the Indus along the foot of the Western Range, and covered a large portion of the present province of Sindh. However, scholars opine that the Eastern sea or the Purva (Apara or Arvaavat) sea is not the same as the Bay of Bengal as this bay is very far from where the Saptasindhu rivers were flowing. It has been proposed that land areas that are now known to be Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, i.e., the gangetic plains were we find the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, were once areas of a sea (in the Pleistocene era) which got filled with the sands brought down by the rivers and became plains.<ref name=":42">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 515-531)</ref> Geological evidence goes on to show that there were actually three seas on the three sides of Saptasindhu, i.e., the Eastern, the Western and the Southern and the fourth sea logically must have been somewhere on the north beyond the Himalayas. There is a mention that a deep trough (sea) did exist at the foot of the Himalayan range in ancient geological times as per Mr. Wadia (in his Geology of India book). This trough or sea lasted through long ages during which it was gradually filled up with alluvium into which were embedded the remains of a rich varied fauna "of herbivores, carnivores, rodents and of primates, the highest order of the mammals," brought down by the rivers and streams.<blockquote>ये अ॑स्या आ॒चर॑णेषु दध्रि॒रे स॑मु॒द्रे न श्र॑व॒स्यव॑: ॥३॥ (Rg. Veda. 1.48.3)<ref>Rgveda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhitas-mandal-01-sukta-048/ Mandala 1 Sukta 48])</ref></blockquote>According to Dr. A. C. Das, geological evidence proves that such a sea did actually exist in ancient times, stretching from below the highlands of modern Turkestan towards Siberia on one side, and from the confines of Mongolia to the Black Sea, on the other, covering an immense area. This sea disappeared in comparatively recent geological times, leaving the Black Sea, the Sea of Aral, Lake Balkash, and an extensive depression low, dry and converted into steppes, as its remnants. The Black Sea was not at that time connected with the Mediterranean, and its western shores formed the Isthmus of Bosphorus linking Europe with Asia. On the confines of East Turkestan also there was in ancient times another immense Asiatic Mediterranean Sea, of which Lake Lobnor is the remnant. These stern geological facts are corroborated in Rgvedic mantras. We can see the effects of climate change reflected in the mantras and the disappearance of one of the four seas around the Sapta Sindhu, and the upheaval of a vast tract of arid desert in the South. Dr. Das's discussion about various geological evidences<blockquote>''"clearly proved the existence of the four seas mentioned in the Rgveda, round about the region, inhabited by the ancient Aryans, which included Sapta-sindhu on the south, Bactriana and Eastern Turkestan on the north, Gandhara on the west and the upper valleys of the Ganga and Yamuna on the east. The age of the Rgveda, therefore, must be as old as the existence of these four seas in ancient times."'' <ref name=":7" /></blockquote>It is time we delve deeper into the geological testimony which supports the vast antiquity of Rgveda stretching back to times immemorial.<ref name=":7" />
+We see that of the four seas, the Rgveda mentions about two, the 'पूर्व (purva)' and 'अपर (apara)' samudras very clearly. The Purva (or अवर-Avara) samudra also called as Arvavat (अर्वावत्) is where the sunrises and the Apara (or पर - Para) samudra also called as Paraavat (परावत्) is where the sun sets. The Arabian sea is the Paraavat sea where the Sindhu and its tributaries drain into. It however, ran up the present lower valley of the Indus along the foot of the Western Range, and covered a large portion of the present province of Sindh. However, scholars opine that the Eastern sea or the Purva (Apara or Arvaavat) sea is not the same as the Bay of Bengal as this bay is very far from where the Saptasindhu rivers were flowing. It has been proposed that land areas that are now known to be Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, i.e., the gangetic plains were we find the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, were once areas of a sea (in the Pleistocene era) which got filled with the sands brought down by the rivers and became plains.<ref name=":42">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 515-531)</ref>
 === Rivers ===

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 == People in Rgveda ==
-'''Panchajana (पञ्चजन)''' - Frequently in the Rgveda we find the usage of the term "Panchajana (पञ्चजन)" such as in पञ्चजना मम होत्रं जुषध्वम् । (Rig. Veda. 10.53.4).
+Panchajaah (पञ्चजनाः) as in <blockquote>
+इ॒न्द्रि॒याणि॑ शतक्रतो॒ या ते॒ जने॑षु प॒ञ्चसु॑ । इन्द्र॒ तानि॑ त॒ आ वृ॑णे ॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 3.37.9) </blockquote>Panchakrshtayaha (पञ्चकृष्टयः) as in<blockquote>अ॒स्माकं॑ द्यु॒म्नमधि॒ पञ्च॑ कृ॒ष्टिषू॒च्चा स्व१र्ण शु॑शुचीत दु॒ष्टर॑म् ॥१०॥ (Rig. Veda. 2.2.10)</blockquote>Panchacharshanyaha (या पञ्चचर्षण्यः)<blockquote>या पञ्च॑ चर्ष॒णीर॒भी॑न्द्रा॒ग्नी ता ह॑वामहे ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.86.2)</blockquote>Panchakshitayaha (पञ्चक्षितयः)<blockquote>इन्द्र॒: पञ्च॑ क्षिती॒नाम्॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.7.9)</blockquote>According to Pt. Kapil Dev Dwivedi, in the Aitareya Brahmana (8.3.14) we find an explanation about this term. The raja and praja (the king and the citizens) belonging to the purva (east), paschima (west), uttara (north) and dakshina (south) deshas (देश-s - places) along with the madhya-desha namely Kuru and Panchala rajyas constitute the Panchajanas (ध्रुवा मध्यमा प्रतिष्ठा). In this way Panchajana includes the the whole population  in the region. According to Sayanacharya, Panchajana includes the people of the four varnas and the Nishada tribes.<ref name=":6" />
 Traditional history knows of many different streams of tribes or peoples, but the two main streams are of those belonging to the Solar Race of the IkSvAkus, and those belonging to the Lunar Race of the AiLas. The AiLas are further divided into five main branches: the Yadu-s, TurvaSa-s, Druhyu-s, Anu-s and PUru-s.<ref name=":1" />