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Atom has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.

== Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory ==
The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire which are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents.

The chemical theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system involves the theory of Anu-s or atoms comparable to the tanmatras of the Samkhya philosophy. The Samkhya virtually substantizes the “gunas”; the Vaiseshikas take them to be qualities which are always found in some dravya. According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. There are two states of anu- a state of motion and a state of absolute rest.
The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).
Each of the first five substances possess a unique quality, which makes the substance what it is. Maharshi Kanada recognized four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
#kshiti or earth - smell
#apa or water - taste
#tejas or fire - color
#vayu or air - touch
These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are partless and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha. Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory:

* '''Indivisibility:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter.
* '''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
* '''Four Elemental Atoms:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms: earth, water, light, and air.
* '''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
* '''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
* '''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
* '''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
====Combination of Atoms====
Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":52">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
====Effect of Heat====
A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

- transformation of the character of the atoms

- recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance.

The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.<ref name=":32">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>

Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":12" />

(A) Mono-bhautic compounds :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.

(B) Hetero-bhautic compounds :—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.

A nature (Tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the Changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as

1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting.

In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>

== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==

== References ==
[[Category:Chemistry]]

@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
   The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).
-  पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । १,१.४ । Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>
+  पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । १,१.४ । Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4<ref name=":0">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>
 Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
 #kshiti or earth - smell
@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 * faculty
 }}
-Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality.
+Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality. Maharshi Kanada outlines the special qualities of the five elements (including Akasha) as follows<ref name=":0" />
-रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । २,१.१ । Prithvi has the qualities of form, taste, smell and touch
+रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । २,१.१ । rūparasagandhasparśavatī pṛthivī | 2,1.1 | Prithvi or earth has the qualities of form, taste, smell and touch
-रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाश्च । २,१.२ ।
+रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाश्च । २,१.२ । rūparasasparśavatya āpo dravāḥ snigdhāśca | 2,1.2 | Apa or water has form, taste, and touch; it has the characteristic of fluidty and viscidity
-तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । २,१.३ ।
+तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । २,१.३ । tejo rūpasparśavat | 2,1.3 | Tejas or fire has form and touch
-वायुः स्पर्शवान् । २,१.४ ।
+वायुः स्पर्शवान् । २,१.४ । vāyuḥ sparśavān | 2,1.4 | Vayu is known by touch
-त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । २,१.५ ।
+त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । २,१.५ । ta ākāśe na vidyante | 2,1.5 | None of these exist in Akasha or ether
 Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules.<ref name=":1" />
@@ Line 107: / Line 107: @@
 In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>
 == Samkhya Theory of Matter ==

@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>
   The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).
 Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
 #kshiti or earth - smell
@@ Line 16: / Line 18: @@
 #tejas or fire - color
 #vayu or air - touch
-These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.
+These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. All other objects made by the combination of atoms are non-eternal and subject to origination as well as destruction. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.
-Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities
+Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities as follows, among them its unique quality is smell or odour.<ref name=":4" />
 {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
 * colour
@@ Line 35: / Line 37: @@
 * faculty
 }}
-Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
+Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality.
 That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.
@@ Line 50: / Line 64: @@
 *'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
 *'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
 *'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)
 *'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.
@@ Line 55: / Line 70: @@
 Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
 ===Combination of Atoms===
-Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.
+The four kind of atoms, namely of kshiti, apa, tejas, and vayu, are characterized by their characteristic mass, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":5" />
-Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1
+Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads = 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1
-While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />
+While Kanada's Atoms combine = basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />
 Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).

@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities
+{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
+* colour
 Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.<ref name=":13">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469</ref>
 According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>
   The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).
@@ Line 15: / Line 16: @@
 #tejas or fire - color
 #vayu or air - touch
-These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are partless and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha. Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
+These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.
 That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.
-Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:<ref name=":13" />
+=== Key Features of Atomic Theory ===
-* '''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.
+*'''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.
-* '''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
+*'''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
-* '''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.
+*'''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.
-* '''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
+*'''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
-* '''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
+*'''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
-* '''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
+*'''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
-* '''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
+*'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
-* '''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
+*'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
-* '''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, they are theoretically regarded as spherical
+*'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)
-* '''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.
+*'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.
 Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
@@ Line 38: / Line 45: @@
 Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1
-While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":52">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
+While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />
 Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
 ===Effect of Heat ===
-A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />
+A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. Heat and light, are the different forms of the same essential entity, tejas according to Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" /> The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />
 - decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)
@@ Line 69: / Line 76: @@
 == Samkhya Theory of Matter ==
 == References ==
 [[Category:Chemistry]]