Ancient Indian Botany (वनस्पतिशास्त्रम्) - Revision history

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व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

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व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

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व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

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Fordharma: /* Literature dealing with Plants */

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Literature dealing with Plants

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Morphological characteristics

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 विटपः २३ कुजः २४ वनस्पतिः २५ अद्रिः २६ शिखरी २७ कुठः २८ । इति जटाधरः ॥ कुञ्जः २९ क्षितिरुहः ३० अङ्घ्रिपः ३१ भूरुहः ३२ भूजः ३३ महीजः ३४ धरणीरुह ३५ क्षितिजः ३६ शालः ३७ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥
 viṭapaḥ 23 kujaḥ 24 vanaspatiḥ 25 adriḥ 26 śikharī 27 kuṭhaḥ 28 | iti jaṭādharaḥ || kuñjaḥ 29 kṣitiruhaḥ 30 aṅghripaḥ 31 bhūruhaḥ 32 bhūjaḥ 33 mahījaḥ 34 dharaṇīruha 35 kṣitijaḥ 36 śālaḥ 37 | iti rājanirghaṇṭaḥ ||</blockquote>They are vrksha, mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapa, taruḥ, anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ drudruma and palāśī according to Amarakosha; agacchaḥ, viṣṭaraḥ, mahīruṭ, kuciḥ, sthiraḥ, kāraskaraḥ, nagaḥ, agaḥ, kuṭāraḥa as per Shabdaratnavali and other terms are synonyms for trees. A few term and their meanings are explained below.
@@ Line 66: / Line 64: @@
 |वनस्पतिः (vanaspatiḥ)
 |It means 'the lord over forest.' A tree or forest in general
-|विना पुष्पं फलिद्रुमः । अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः ॥ वृक्षमात्रम् । इति मेदिनी।<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83+</ref><nowiki> vinā puṣpaṃ phalidrumaḥ | apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ || vṛkṣamātram | iti medinī |</nowiki>
+|विना पुष्पं फलिद्रुमः । अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः ॥ वृक्षमात्रम् । इति मेदिनी।<ref>[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83+ वनस्पतिः] </ref><nowiki> vinā puṣpaṃ phalidrumaḥ | apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ || vṛkṣamātram | iti medinī |</nowiki>
 Vanaspatis or trees bear fruit without an apparent flowering stage.
@@ Line 72: / Line 70: @@
 |द्रुमाः (drumāḥ)
 |A tree
-|ये पुष्पैः फलन्ति ते द्रुमाः ।<ref name=":9">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0</ref><nowiki> ye puṣpaiḥ phalanti te drumāḥ |</nowiki>
+|ये पुष्पैः फलन्ति ते द्रुमाः ।<ref name=":9">[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0 ओषधयः] </ref><nowiki> ye puṣpaiḥ phalanti te drumāḥ |</nowiki>
 A tree that bears fruits through flowers is termed drumāḥ.
 |-

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 agacchaḥ 14 viṣṭaraḥ 15 mahīruṭ 16 kuciḥ 17 sthiraḥ 18 kāraskaraḥ 19 nagaḥ 20 agaḥ 21 kuṭāraḥ 22 | iti śabdaratnāvalī ||
-विटपः २३ कुजः २४ वनस्पतिः २५ अद्रिः २६ शिखरी २७ कुठः २८ । इति जटाधरः ॥ कुञ्जः २९ क्षितिरुहः ३० अङ्घ्रिपः ३१ भूरुहः ३२ भूजः ३३ महीजः ३४ धरणीरुह ३५ क्षितिजः ३६ शालः ३७ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%83&page=kosha</ref>
+विटपः २३ कुजः २४ वनस्पतिः २५ अद्रिः २६ शिखरी २७ कुठः २८ । इति जटाधरः ॥ कुञ्जः २९ क्षितिरुहः ३० अङ्घ्रिपः ३१ भूरुहः ३२ भूजः ३३ महीजः ३४ धरणीरुह ३५ क्षितिजः ३६ शालः ३७ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥
 viṭapaḥ 23 kujaḥ 24 vanaspatiḥ 25 adriḥ 26 śikharī 27 kuṭhaḥ 28 | iti jaṭādharaḥ || kuñjaḥ 29 kṣitiruhaḥ 30 aṅghripaḥ 31 bhūruhaḥ 32 bhūjaḥ 33 mahījaḥ 34 dharaṇīruha 35 kṣitijaḥ 36 śālaḥ 37 | iti rājanirghaṇṭaḥ ||</blockquote>They are vrksha, mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapa, taruḥ, anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ drudruma and palāśī according to Amarakosha; agacchaḥ, viṣṭaraḥ, mahīruṭ, kuciḥ, sthiraḥ, kāraskaraḥ, nagaḥ, agaḥ, kuṭāraḥa as per Shabdaratnavali and other terms are synonyms for trees. A few term and their meanings are explained below.

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 ==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
-Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7</ref> mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha<ref name=":0" /> gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.<blockquote>वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)
+Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":0">Shabdakalpadhruma ([https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7 Vrksh])</ref> mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha<ref name=":0" /> gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.<blockquote>वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)
 अगच्छः १४ विष्टरः १५ महीरुट् १६ कुचिः १७ स्थिरः १८ कारस्करः १९ नगः २० अगः २१ कुटारः २२ । इति शब्दरत्नावली ॥
@@ Line 33: / Line 33: @@
 *महीरुह (मह्यां रोहति जायत इति) - that which gets planted and grows on Earth
 *शाखिन् (शाखाऽस्त्यस्य।) - that which is branching, ramifying
-*विटपिन् (विटपोऽस्यास्ति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> - that which has branches or boughs
+*विटपिन् (विटपोऽस्यास्ति)<ref>[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D विटपिन्] </ref> - that which has branches or boughs
-*पादप (पादेन मूलेन पिबति रसानिति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AA</ref> that which drinks (sap) from feet (roots)
+*पादप (पादेन मूलेन पिबति रसानिति)<ref>[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AA पादप] </ref> that which drinks (sap) from feet (roots)
-*तरु (तरति समुद्रादिकमनेनेति as per Shabdakalpadhruma)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81</ref> that by which people overcome heat
+*तरु (तरति समुद्रादिकमनेनेति as per Shabdakalpadhruma)<ref>[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81 तरु in Shabdakalpadhruma]</ref> that by which people overcome heat
 *अनोकह (अनसः शकटस्य अकं गमनं) that which does not quit his home or place (does not move)
-*कुटः (कौटिल्ये as per Vachaspatyam)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F</ref> that which is crooked
+*कुटः (कौटिल्ये as per Vachaspatyam)<ref>[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F कुटः] </ref> that which is crooked
 *शालः (वृक्षभेदे) a kind of a very tall and stately tree
-*पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> which has leaves
+*पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य)<ref>[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D पलाशी] </ref> which has leaves
-*अगमः (न गच्छतीति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE</ref> that which doesn’t move
+*अगमः (न गच्छतीति)<ref>[https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE अगमः] </ref> that which doesn’t move
 Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors. Plants were named according to<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12" />

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-{{ToBeEdited}}
+[[File:Botany - Vanaspati Shastra.png|thumb|Botany - Study of Plant Kingdom]]
 Plants and human beings have an intimate relationship and it is well recognized since ancient times. Science in general and plant science in particular is an integral part of the Vēdas. Plants give oxygen, food and medicines to human beings and hence have to be protected at all times. References to the cultivation of cereals, such as wheat, barley, rice and ragi in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas-Upanishads bear ample testimony to the importance of plants as food and the development of agriculture in the Vedic times. Vedic seers were well known for their reverence to nature and natural forces and their eco-centric lifestyle is evident in the mantras of Rigveda. Yajna being the subject matter of the Vedas, there is no ritualistic activity in yajnas without the usage of a plant product.<ref name=":3">Boddupalli, R. S. (2021). Traditional knowledge of botany and agriculture revealed in the Vēda Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇās, Araṇyakās and Upaniṣads. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''20''(1), 284–297.</ref>
 ==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==
-Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>
+Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs, grasses<ref>Boddupalli, R. (2024). Traditional knowledge of Vedic grasses - Their significance and medicinal uses. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''23''(3). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.56042/ijtk.v23i3.832</nowiki></ref> and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>
 Archeological evidence for the prehistoric use of botanical products in the Indian sub-continent, is scanty and scattered and does not allow a chronological history of the uses of plants. The oldest record of such use is from the site of Indus Valley civilization, in which cereals (wheat, barley, rice and ragi), woods and other plant products were used.<ref name=":1">Chowdhury, K. A. 1971. Botany: Prehistoric Period. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 371-375.</ref> The Indus Valley people used to live in villages, cities and towns, wore clothes, cultivated crops including wheat, barley, millet, dates, vegetables, melon and other fruits and cotton; worshipped trees, glazed their pottery with the juice of plants and painted them with a large number of plant designs.<ref name=":5">[https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_tiwar_botany_frameset.htm Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy by Lalit Tiwari]</ref>
@@ Line 100: / Line 99: @@
 * ओषधीरिति मातरस्तद्वो देवीरुप ब्रुवे । सनेयमश्वं गां वास आत्मानं तव पूरुष ॥४॥ O plant! I hail you, the divine mother (of mankind).
-=== Rigveda ===
+=== ऋग्वेदः ॥ Rigveda ===
 The [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras.
@@ Line 109: / Line 108: @@
 Indus Valley archeological findings further record the use of wood particularly deodar (Cedrus deodara) and rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) for a coffin, and Indian jujube or ber in Hindi (Zizyphus jujuba) for a wooden mortar for pounding grains. Choice of these woods for specific purposes shows not only knowledge of where the trees grow but also of the characteristic qualities of the woods used. Timbers recovered from Lothal in Gujarat were of Acacia sps., Tectona grandis, Adina cordifolia indicate that the Harappans knew of the quality of these timbers nearly as much as we know of them today.<ref name=":1" />
-=== Yajurveda ===
+=== यजुर्वेदः ॥ Yajurveda ===
 The trees and plants revealed in the Vēdas are the key for the ritualistic activities or yajñas. Initiating any yajña begins primarily with the covering of the yajñavēdi (yajña alter) with the darbha [Desmostachya bipinnata], which is a grass. Several implements used in yajñas are manufactured from the wood of specified trees was described in [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]]. Yajñas and yāgās being the fundamental characteristics of the Yajurveda, involved extensive usage of plant products. The names of plants, trees and their products that are specifically used in the yajñas, yāgās, hōmās and iṣṭis are elaborately described in the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇās.<ref name=":3" />
 [[File:Samidhas cherished by Agni.png|thumb|Seven samidhas of importance in yajñas]]
@@ Line 124: / Line 123: @@
 Several botanical terms are described in the four Vēdas and particularly in the Yajurvēda. The Taittriya Samhita and the Vajasaneya Samhita describe and explain that plants comprise of various parts and the botanical terms mentioned are identified with those modern botany. Classifying plants according to their vegetative and reproductive properties, form and growth is similar to that of the modern classifications of the plant kingdom by Carolus Linnaeus and others. Another interesting feature noticed in the Vajasaneya Samhita, Taittriya Brahmana and Atharvaveda is the description of an entire region by the type of plants growing in that area, e.g. naḍvala (a place abounding in reeds), śipālya (a region where the plant śipala grows).<ref name=":4" />
-=== Atharvaveda ===
+Many botanical and agricultural terms, food grains, trees, herbs are mentioned in the ‘Śrī Rudram’ mantras of Yajurveda (Taittriya Samhita 4-5, 4-7 and Vajasaneya Samhita 16).<ref name=":3" />
 The growing acquaintance with plant life is further reflected in the appreciation of the medicinal properties of plants and in the appearance of a class of Atharvan priests specializing in the herbal treatment of diseases.<ref name=":2" /> In [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] the type, shape and morphology of plants is described making it the earliest recorded authority on plant morphology. Atharvaveda sukta (8.7.12) elaborately describes various plant parts and its medicinal values to remove human ailments, thus throwing light on the fact that plant medicines where highly developed since ancient times.<ref name=":3" />
 == Plants are Living Beings ==
 Plants have been regarded as having sensitivity, feelings and the elemental nature of plants are described in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. In the Bharadvaja Bhrigu Samvada, Maharshi Bharadwaja asks that since trees can neither see nor hear, nor smell, no feel pleasure, nor have a sense of touch, how then are they animate or living and how are they constituted by the five elements or panchabhutas? (Mahabharata Shan. Parv. 184.6-9)<ref>Sastri, R. (2009). [https://archive.org/details/mahabharat05ramauoft/page/4893/mode/1up ''Mahabharata: Vol. 5 Shanti Parva''.] </ref><blockquote>भरद्वाज उवाच।
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 # उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels
 # तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness due to [[Tamas (तमः)|tamas]] guna
-# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling
+# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling (consciousness)
 # विशेषिणः - of many varieties
@@ Line 220: / Line 221: @@
 ==== Morphological characteristics ====
 Morphological features were well identified in Indian treatises.<ref name=":8" />
@@ Line 226: / Line 228: @@
 * shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers),
 * other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers.
 ==== Physiological characteristics ====

@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]].  There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped.
-We find a mention of plants, their medicinal properties, uses as food grains, in yajnas, as wood and timber etc in various texts such as
+We find a mention of plants, their medicinal properties, uses as food grains, in yajnas, as wood and timber etc., in various texts such as
-# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively with reference to food grains, samidhas in yajnas, seasonal.<ref name=":5" />
+# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively with reference to food grains, samidhas in yajnas, seasonal crops.<ref name=":5" />
 # Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.
 # Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana, and Vayupurana mention about plants and their classification, plant parts and their usage.
@@ Line 217: / Line 217: @@
 All these parts are Amṛtasya–Sweet in content
-The main trunk part of the tree is called Prakand or skanda (stem) from where branches spread out. The trees having a very strong stem/ trunk are termed as vanaspati or vaanaspati. A Lata/valli/vratati is one that cannot stand upright on its own.
+The main trunk part of the tree is called Prakand or skanda (stem) from where branches spread out. The trees having a very strong stem/ trunk are termed as vanaspati or vaanaspati. A Lata/valli/vratati is one that cannot stand upright on its own.<ref name=":12" />
 ==== Morphological characteristics ====
 Morphological features were well identified in Indian treatises.<ref name=":8" />
 * the number of leaflets in a compound leaf (e.g. Saptaparṇa (सप्तपर्ण) is identified with ''Alstonia scholaris'' (the blackboard tree)),
@@ Line 230: / Line 230: @@
 Plant physiology is the study of the vital processes of plant life. It deals with the functioning of plants. Plant physiology studies the ways in which plants absorb minerals and water, grow and develop, flower and bear fruit. It also deals with mineral nutrition, photosynthesis, respiration, and biosynthesis and the accumulation of substances which together enable plants to grow and reproduce themselves.<ref name=":3" />
-* Acharya Sushruta emphasized on four important aspects for sprouting to take place (1)
+* Acharya Sushruta in the context of conception and development of a healthy child mentions the requirements similar to the proper season (Ritu), good soil (Kshetra), water (containing nutrient matter) and vigorous seeds (Bija) together with proper care, help the germination of strong and undiseased sprouts. ऋतुक्षेत्राम्बुबीजानां सामग्र्यादङ्कुरो यथा (Sush. Shari. 2.33)<ref>Sushruta Samhita ([https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/sushruta-samhita-volume-3-sharirasthana/d/doc142880.html Sharirasthana Adhyaya 2])</ref>
 === Growth Habitats ===
@@ Line 354: / Line 367: @@
 |-
 |Vayu Purana
-|<ref name=":10" />
+|वृक्षा गुल्मलतावल्लीवीरुधस्तृणजातयः ।।१५०।।
-−
+|
 |-
 |}

@@ Line 13: / Line 13: @@
 We find a mention of plants, their medicinal properties, uses as food grains, in yajnas, as wood and timber etc in various texts such as
-# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively.<ref name=":5" />
+# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively with reference to food grains, samidhas in yajnas, seasonal.<ref name=":5" />
 # Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.
-# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana, Vayupurana mention about plants and their classification
+# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana, and Vayupurana mention about plants and their classification, plant parts and their usage.
-# Ramayana <ref>Murugesan, A and P. Sudhakar (2013) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325144789_Plant_and_Animal_diversity_in_Valmiki's_Ramayana Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana]'' Chennai: C. P. R. Environmental Education Centre</ref> and Mahabharata<ref>Mani, N. (2007). ''Panchamved Mahabharat mein Padapa Vichar''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref> describe the ecological aspects and about plants having life
+# Ramayana <ref>Murugesan, A and P. Sudhakar (2013) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325144789_Plant_and_Animal_diversity_in_Valmiki's_Ramayana Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana]'' Chennai: C. P. R. Environmental Education Centre</ref> and Mahabharata<ref>Mani, N. (2007). ''Panchamved Mahabharat mein Padapa Vichar''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref> describe the ecological aspects and consciousness in plants
 # Ayurveda - Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas extensively describe various types of plants, their parts and their medicinal functions for treatment of different ailments of human beings and other creatures.
-# Brihatsamhita - speaks of trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are beneficial to warfare.<ref name=":2">Ghose, A. K. 1971. Botany: The Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Ed.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 375-392.</ref>
+# Brihatsamhita - mentions trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are used for warfare.<ref name=":2">Ghose, A. K. 1971. Botany: The Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Ed.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 375-392.</ref>
 # Vrkshayurveda - 14 kandas described<ref name=":2" /><ref>A K, S., & Katti, A. (2022). Science of Plant Life - Vrikshayurveda: A Historical Account. ''International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine'', ''12''(2), 4204–4208. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47191/ijahm/v12i2.06</nowiki></ref>
 # Arthashastra classifies plants based on their economic uses.<ref name=":13" />
 ==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
@@ Line 111: / Line 110: @@
 === Yajurveda ===
-The trees and plants revealed in the Vēdas are the key for the ritualistic activities or yajñas. Initiating any yajña begins primarily with the covering of the yajñavēdi (yajña alter) with the darbha [Desmostachya bipinnata], which is a grass. Several implements used in yajñas are manufactured from the wood of specified trees was described in Yajurveda. Yajñas and yāgās being the fundamental characteristics of the Yajurveda, involved extensive usage of plant products. The names of plants, trees and their products that are specifically used in the yajñas, yāgās, hōmās and iṣṭis are elaborately described in the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇās.<ref name=":3" />
+The trees and plants revealed in the Vēdas are the key for the ritualistic activities or yajñas. Initiating any yajña begins primarily with the covering of the yajñavēdi (yajña alter) with the darbha [Desmostachya bipinnata], which is a grass. Several implements used in yajñas are manufactured from the wood of specified trees was described in [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]]. Yajñas and yāgās being the fundamental characteristics of the Yajurveda, involved extensive usage of plant products. The names of plants, trees and their products that are specifically used in the yajñas, yāgās, hōmās and iṣṭis are elaborately described in the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇās.<ref name=":3" />
 [[File:Samidhas cherished by Agni.png|thumb|Seven samidhas of importance in yajñas]]
 The homa involves two things– the material to be offered in yajña and the implement used during the yajña. Of them, the ‘samidhas’ are very commonly used as the materials from several trees and plants offered into the fire of yajñas. Seven are cherished offerings to Agni include<ref name=":4" />
@@ Line 197: / Line 196: @@
 # मधुमती ॥ sweet
 # प्रचेतस ॥ one that gives chetana (life force)
-# मेदिनी ॥ nourishing
+# मेदिनी ॥ one which nourishes
 # उग्रा ॥ one that produces severe effects
 # विषदूषणीः ॥ one that destroys poisons
 # बलासनाशनीः ॥ destroys kapha
-Plants have preventive and curative properties. As प्रदूषनिवारकाः ॥ one that prevents pollution - Yajuveda mentions that plants prevent pollution and hence are called शमिता (शमनकर्ता)<ref name=":6" />
+Plants have preventive and curative properties. As प्रदूषनिवारकाः ॥ one that prevents pollution - Yajuveda mentions that plants prevent pollution and hence are called शमिता (शमनकर्ता)<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>वनस्पतिः शमिता देवोऽ अग्निः स्वदन्तु हव्यं मधुना घृतेन ॥ vanaspatiḥ śamitā devo’ agniḥ svadantu havyaṃ madhunā ghṛtena || (Shuk. Yaju. 29.35)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 29])</ref></blockquote>The supreme being takes an उग्रा or dreaded form as vanaspatis and cause significant effects (Atharvaveda and Koushitaki Brahmana), they cure many ailments and destroy disease causing germs. They have the capacity to promote energy, growth, and strength in all beings.<ref name=":6" />
 == Plant Morphology and Habitats==
 === Plant Parts ===
@@ Line 225: / Line 220: @@
 ==== Morphological characteristics ====
-Morphological features were well identified in Indian treatises.
+Morphological features were well identified in Indian treatises.<ref name=":8" />
 * the number of leaflets in a compound leaf (e.g. Saptaparṇa (सप्तपर्ण) is identified with ''Alstonia scholaris'' (the blackboard tree)),
 * nature of shape of the leaf (e.g. dirghapatraka (दीर्घपत्रक) is one with long leaves as in sugar-cane, ashvaparnaka refers to Shorea robusta whose leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a horse),
-* shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers), and
+* shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers),
 * other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers.
-Physiological characteristics
+==== Physiological characteristics ====
 === Growth Habitats ===

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