Nonexistence in Nyaya Shastra (अभावः)

Introduction

The Nyāya Śāstra, one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, presents a comprehensive metaphysical framework through its theory of seven categories or padarthas. According to the foundational text, these are enumerated as "dravyagunakarmasamanyavisheshasamavayaabhavah" "dravyaguṇakarmasāmānyaviśeṣasamavayābhāvāḥ sapta padārthāḥ" (substance, quality, action, universal, particular, inherence, and non-existence are the seven categories). These seven categories can be fundamentally divided into two types: bhāva padārtha (positive entities that exist) and abhāva padārtha (negative entities representing non-existence). While the first six categories—substance (dravya), quality (guṇa), action (karma), universal (sāmānya), particular (viśeṣa), and inherence (samavāya)—constitute positive existence, abhāva stands uniquely as the category of non-existence or absence. The Nature of Abhāva Abhāva is invariably expressed through negative linguistic constructions. When we state "there is no water in the pot" (ghaṭe jalam nāsti), we cognize the absence of water (jalābhāva). This linguistic formulation reveals a crucial philosophical insight: every instance of abhāva necessarily involves a pratiyogī, which refers to the entity whose non-existence is being asserted. In the aforementioned example, water serves as the pratiyogī of the absence being cognized. The classical text Tarkasaṅgraha, widely studied for understanding the fundamental concepts of Nyāya categories, systematically classifies abhāva into four distinct types, each representing different temporal and logical relationships between existence and non-existence. The Four-Fold Classification of Abhāva

Prāgabhāva (Prior Non-Existence)

Prāgabhāva represents the state of non-existence that precedes the creation or manifestation of an entity. This temporal absence can be illustrated through a practical example: when seeds are planted in a garden, there exists a period before the emergence of seedlings during which the plant does not exist. This absence of the plant (aṅkurābhāva) from the time of planting until germination constitutes aṅkuraprāgabhāva. The philosophical significance lies in our ability to perceive and cognize this absence before the entity comes into being.

Pradhvaṃsābhāva (Posterior Non-Existence)

Pradhvaṃsābhāva, derived from pradhvaṃsa (destruction), represents the non-existence that follows the destruction or cessation of an entity. Continuing with our botanical example, when the plant dies due to inadequate water supply, we cognize the absence of the plant that once existed. This post-destruction absence, expressed through negative formulations, constitutes pradhvaṃsābhāva or simply dhvaṃsa.

Atyantābhāva (Absolute Non-Existence)

Atyantābhāva presents the most philosophically complex category, characterized as eternal (nitya) and permanent. When we assert "there is no flower in the tree," the absence cognized through this negative statement represents atyantābhāva. However, this raises a legitimate philosophical question: how does atyantābhāva differ from prāgabhāva and pradhvaṃsābhāva? Contemporary Ācāryas offer nuanced interpretations. Some maintain that atyantābhāva occurs in locations where the pratiyogī cannot possibly reside. For instance, the statement "there is no color in air" (vāyau rūpam nāsti) expresses the absence of color, where color serves as the pratiyogī. Since color cannot exist in air under any temporal conditions, neither prāgabhāva nor pradhvaṃsābhāva of color can occur in air. Therefore, this absence constitutes rūpātyantābhāva. Alternative scholarly interpretations suggest that while atyantābhāva is eternal in nature, it becomes epistemologically accessible only in conjunction with the prāgabhāva or pradhvaṃsābhāva of its pratiyogī, thus maintaining its distinctiveness from other forms of non-existence.

Anyonyābhāva (Mutual Non-Existence)

Anyonyābhāva represents difference or distinctiveness between entities. The statement "a boy is not a girl" exemplifies this category, where the negative particle 'not' expresses anyonyābhāva. Here, the girl serves as the pratiyogī, and the absence cognized is essentially bheda (difference). This form of abhāva captures the logical relationship of non-identity between distinct entities. Alternative Classification Systems Beyond the four-fold classification, Nyāya philosophy recognizes a binary division of abhāva into saṃsargābhāva and anyonyābhāva. The first three types—prāgabhāva, pradhvaṃsābhāva, and atyantābhāva—collectively constitute saṃsargābhāva, while anyonyābhāva remains as a distinct category. This classification reflects the fundamental distinction between relational absence and differential absence.

The Framework of Relations (Sambandha) Understanding abhāva requires familiarity with the various types of relations (sambandha) recognized in Nyāya philosophy, Saṃyoga represents the relation between two substances (dravya). The classical enumeration "pṛthivyāptejovayvākāśakāladigātmamanāṃsi navadravyāṇi" identifies nine substances: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, direction, self, and mind. Relations between these substances constitute saṃyoga. Samavāya denotes the inherent relation between parts and wholes, qualities and their substrates, and similar ontological connections. Kālikasambandha governs temporal relations, particularly the relationship between created entities and time itself.

Svarūpasambandha represents the relation through which abhāva resides in its locus. When we state "there is no water in the pot," the absence of water exists in the pot through svarūpasambandha. Contemporary Philosophical Developments Some Ācāryas propose an additional category called sāmaikyābhāva. This concept addresses situations where "dhvaṃsaprāgabhāvayoḥ adhikaraṇe atyantābhāva na aṅgīkriyate" (absolute non-existence is not accepted in locations where both destruction and prior non-existence occur). For instance, when a book is removed from a table and later replaced, the temporary absence represents sāmaikyābhāva—a contextually determined absence that can be understood within specific temporal parameters. Abhāva as Pratyakṣa (Perceptible) Significantly, Nyāya philosophy maintains that abhāva is pratyakṣa (directly perceptible). The term pratyakṣa derives from akṣa (sense organ), with "akṣe akṣe prati pratyakṣa" indicating knowledge acquired through sense organs. The Tarkasaṅgraha defines pratyakṣa as "indriyārtha saṃnikarṣa janyaṃ jñānaṃ pratyakṣam" (knowledge arising from the contact between sense organ and object). This philosophical position asserts that non-existence, like positive entities, can be directly cognized through sensory experience rather than merely inferred. Conclusion

The Nyāya theory of abhāva represents a sophisticated philosophical analysis of non-existence, demonstrating that absence is not merely the negation of presence but constitutes a legitimate category of reality with its own ontological status. Through its systematic classification and integration with the broader framework of relations, abhāva provides crucial insights into the nature of cognition, language, and reality itself. This philosophical framework continues to offer valuable perspectives for contemporary discussions in metaphysics, epistemology, and philosophy of language.

The recognition of abhāva as both a legitimate category of existence and a perceptible phenomenon reflects the Nyāya school's commitment to empirical realism while maintaining philosophical sophistication in addressing fundamental questions about the nature of reality and knowledge.