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Doshas (दोषाः)

2023-10-27T04:52:16Z

WikiSysop: /* Sharira Dosha or Tridosha */

{{NeedCitation}}The term Dosha in Samskrit means ‘a fault, defect or weak point’ in general. It is also used to indicate someone’s noxious quality, crime, guilt or offense. However, in the context of Ayurveda, this term ‘Dosha’ by default, refers to the 3 biological units or bio energies in the body that control entire functioning of the body. According to Ayurveda, Sharira doshas and Manas doshas are separate entities that control the function of body and mind respectively. Vata, Pitta and Kapha are 3 sharira doshas while Raja and Tama are 2 Manas doshas. All of them have a some specific role and function that is vital for life.

== Introduction ==
The entire physiology and pathology in Ayurveda depends upon the status of 3 fundamental functional units in sharira viz. Doshas, Dhatus and Malas. Among these 3 units, Doshas are always the first to get disturbed by various avtivities, dietary factors, seasonal fluctuations, time of the day and several other factors. Once vitiated they further cause damage to Dhatus, Malas and other components of Sharira and initiate the process of disease development. Thus, Doshas have been given prime importance. In the normal state of equilibrium, they support the body and when vitiated produce the disease. Doshas thus play important role in the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of the diseases. Similarly Manas doshas Rajas and Tamas are responsible for disturbances in the normal functioning of the mind.

== Etymology ==
दूषयन्ति इति दोषाः |

Meaning: Dosha means those who have ability to vitiate other (body components).

== Sharira Dosha or Tridosha ==
<blockquote>वायुः पित्तं कफश्चोक्तः शारीरो दोषसङ्ग्रहः| (Char Samh 1.57)<ref>Charaka Samhita ([https://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/ecaraka/?mod=read Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 1 Sutram 57])</ref>

vāyuḥ pittaṁ kaphaścōktaḥ śārīrō dōṣasaṅgrahaḥ|</blockquote>Meaning: Vata (also called as Vayu), Pitta and Kapha are the 3 Sharira doshas.

Vayu or Vata dosha is the leader of these 3 doshas. It is believed to be the chief controller of all the functions and activities of living body. Moreover, without Vata doshas the other 2 doshas can not manifest them fully. Thus it comes first in the order of 3 doshas.

=== Vata ===

==== Etymology ====
The word ‘Vāta’ is derived from the verb ‘Vā’ which means Gati (motion). This Doṣa is responsible for all the movements in the body.

==== Attributes ====
This biological unit is said to be dry, cold, light, subtle, mobile, non-slimy and rough in its characteristics and can be pacified by drugs that have opposite properties (i.e., creamy or oily, heavy and thick in their property).

==== Types ====
Vata dosha is one and the single energy present all over the body. It is believed to be present in each and every minute part of the body. However, in order to increase the ease of understanding of its function, associate site and modality of treatment; Ayurveda acharyas have described its 5 types.

The 5 types of Vata doshas have specific site in the body and perform specific function. These 5 types of vata doshas are as follows
# Prana Vayu
# Udana Vayu
# Samana Vayu
# Vyana Vayu
# Apana Vayu
In depth description on Vata's role in the body can be found in classical Ayurveda treatises.

==== Function of vata dosha ====
Vata dosha controlls all the activities and movements in the body. Various types of vata are responsible for following functions- Salivation, coughing, eructation, sneezing, respiration, deglutition, phonation, secretion of the gastric juice, retaining the food in the stomach or intestine for the required time, helping in absorption of processed and digested food material. Further it also controls elimination of the semen, urine, faeces etc. The movements related with the delivery of fetus are also governed by it. Pulsation of heart and blood circulation, movement of eyes, limbs etc. are caused by vata dosha. Apart from these activities, unvitiated vata dosha in balanced state is also responsible for generation of enthusiasm, vitality, complexion etc.

=== Pitta ===

==== Etymology ====
The word Pitta is derived from the root ‘Tapa’ which means heat (Santapa). This Dosha is responsible for Pachana and Parinamana (digestion and metabolism) in the body.

==== Attributes ====
Pitta is hot, sharp, mildly unctuous, viscous, sour, mobile and pungent in nature. Pitta can be readily pacified by drugs and food articles having opposite properties i.e. coolants, sweets, bitter and astringent substances.

==== Types ====
Acharya Sushruta and Vagbhata have classified Pitta dosha into 5 types on the basis of its sites and functions. The 5 types of Pitta are as follows,
# Pachaka Pitta
# Ranjaka Pitta
# Bhrajaka Pitta
# Alochaka Pitta and
# Sadhaka Pitta.
In depth description on Pitta's role in the body can be found in classical Ayurveda treatises.

==== Function ====
The most important function of Pitta dosha is digestion and metabolism. It is that bio energy present in the body which is responsible for bringing out any type of conversion, transformation or change in the nature of any substance from outside world into the bodily substance. Thus it is the bodily form of Agni element in the Purusha. Apart from digestion, various other functions performed by Pitta dosha are to provide pigmentation to the skin, hair etc, power of vision, discrimination of colors and formation of Rakta from the essence of food. Pitta dosha is the one which is responsible for intelligence and ego and thus, Pitta dosha also co-ordinates all the functions of the mind and body.

=== Kapha ===

==== Etymoloy ====
Kapha is also called Shleshma. This bio energy is responsible for maintaining the proper water balance, hydration, moisture, connection between any 2 or more body elements and maintaining unctuousness required for optimum functioning of all the Sharira kriya (functions and movements of body). It represents the Jala mahabhuta (water element) of the universe inside the [[Sharira (शरीरम्)|Sharira]] of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]].

==== Attributes ====
Kapha is heavy and dense, cold, soft, unctuous, sweet, immobile and slimy in nature. It can be subsided by drugs and food articles possessing properties like dry, hot, sharp and pungent, bitter, astringent taste.

==== Types ====
Acharya Vagbhata has mentioned 5 types of Kapha on the basis of particular function and site of action. These are as follows,
# Kledaka Kapha
# Avalambaka Kapha
# Tarpaka Kapha
# Bodhaka Kapha
# Sleshaka Kapha

==== Functions ====
When in the balanced state, Kapha dosha performs the function of moistening the food ingested. It also protects the digestive organs from being hurt by the Pitta dosha which is required for digestion and is sharp and hot in nature. The Kapha dosha present in oral cavity aids the sensory organ for taste to perceive Shadrasas (6 tastes) of various substances. Kapha dosha is keeps check on the movements of various body parts and ensures optimum lubrication, hydration and moisture at joints to minimize the friction and maintain strength. It also performs the crucial function of providing stability and nutrition to the mental faculties located in the Shira (The head region).

=== Doshas and Panchamahabhutas (Association between Doshas and 5 basic elements) ===
Panchamahabhuta (5 basic elements of nature) theory and Tridosha theory are among the basic theories of Ayurveda. The theory of Tridosha fundamentally brings Mahabhuta theory into a practical, usable and understandable format for its application in balancing human health. It forms the basis of Ayurveda's physiology and subsequently paves the way to its clinical application. Tridosha refers to 3 doshas viz. Vata, Pitta and Kapha. These 3 doshas are believed to be the compounds which are made through a differential combination of Mahabhutas. It is believed that, every dosha is composed of all 5 elements but 1 or 2 of them have dominance in each dosha making it a unique compound as shown in the table below.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
Association of Doshas and Panchamahabhutas
!Sr NO
!Predominant Mahabhuta
!Representative Dosha
|-
|1
|Akasha + Vayu
|Vata Dosha
|-
|2
|Agni
|Pitta Dosha
|-
|3
|Jala + Prthvi
|Kapha Dosha
|}
Each dosha, therefore, represents the attributes and physiological functioning of a living body, which eventually is the property of its component material. Ayurveda's idea of disease and health is conceived around this concept by identifying a balance of Tridosha and eventually that of the Panchamahabhuta representing health. An imbalance of Mahabhutas, therefore leads to qualitative disturbance of physiological functions subsequently identified as a disharmony of dosha causing a disease.

The functions of Vata, Pitta and Kapha are primary requisites for the existence of any living system since they are considered the basic bio-energies controlling the entire physiology of an individual. These are considered to be the manifestation of compositional peculiarity of a person. By observing the function of their representative dosha, a deficit or the excess of the Mahabhuta can be identified as the cause behind the state of sickness or health.

=== Significance of Doshas ===
Doshas are the forces or bio-energies that create the Shariram (Physical body) along with their counterparts Dhatus and Malas. Thus, these 3 components are called as the roots of the physical body or functional units of the body. Among these 3 units, Doshas are significant because they have the capacity to vitiate the rest 2 units and further aggravate the imbalance in the body causing disease. Since the functions are chiefly governed by doshas, we can say that Doshas are the one that determine conditions of growth, aging, health and disease. Typically, one of the three doshas predominates at the very beginning of life and right at that point of the time, one's constitution or mind-body type is determined. This body-mind type remains unaltered for the whole life. This peculiar combination of doshas started from the life of an individual determines individual habits, emotional responses, tolerance capacity, expression, intelligence, movements and structure. Vaidyas stress on understanding this body type first. On the basis of this type known as 'Prakrti', they decide the plan of treatment to normalize the disturbed balance of doshas in the body to offer the best suitable treatment for the individual.

There are clear indications when there exists an excess or depletion of a any dosha, throwing the system off balance. If left unattended,this vitiated dosha disturbs the equilibrium of dhatus and malas leading to disease development. The in depth descriptions about signs and symptoms of disturbances in Dosha levels are found in classical Ayurveda treatises.
== Manasa Doshas ==
[[Manas (मनः)|Manas]] commonly correlated with mind is one of the integral components of one’s life. Vedas and Bhagvadgita hava clearly mentioned that Satva, Raja and Tama are the 3 properties of manas which carry individual significance. Among these 3 properties Ayurveda makes differentiation and considers Satva as Guna (Good quality) of mind while Raja and Tama are regarded as Doshas of mind.

मानसः पुनरुद्दिष्टो रजश्च तम एव च|| (Char Samh 1.57)

mānasaḥ punaruddiṣṭō rajaśca tama ēva ca||

Meaning: Rajas and tamas are believed to be the manas (mental) doshas.
# Raja
# Tama
In addition to Vāta, Pitta and Kapha which are the bodily Doṣa, there are two Mānasa Doṣa viz. Rajas (passion) and Tamas (darkness). Mānasa Doṣa may be held responsible for mental diseases.

== References ==
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
<references />

Doshas (दोषाः)

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Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir

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{{ToBeEdited}}

'''Location:''' Nalasopara ~70kms from Mumbai.

{{#drawio:G1Pua2GqFB4GcEePWwe37ftAXgRuAa597p}}

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir Mumbai.jpg|thumb]]

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir 2 Mumbai.jpg|left|thumb]]
'''About the Temple:''' This is a very ancient shrine of Lord ''Śiva''. The era of construction is not clearly known. However this is a ''siddha pradeśa'', where many great sages attained ''mokṣha'' by serving the Lord.The temple was attacked by invaders and many of the murti or vigrahas were thrown into the near-by ''Chakreśvar Talao'' (lake). Many such old and rare murti or vigrahas were recovered later and put up in the current temple structure. The present structure is relatively new and small. This is the holy place where ''Svāmi Samarth'' performed ''dhyānam'', ''pratiṣhṭha'' of a ''Rām Mandir'' near-by and blessed a ''śiṣhya'' who undertook a ''sajīva samādhi'' at this very place.

This place is so holy that even normal people (some of whom are alive now) were able to see the baba riding on a horse (in the left picture), who resembles Lord ''Śiva''.

'''Near-by Temples:''' Chandika Devi Mandir, Tungareshwar Mandadev Mandir.
[[Category:Temples]]

Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir

2023-10-26T14:43:40Z

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{{ToBeEdited}}

'''Location:''' Nalasopara ~70kms from Mumbai.

{{#drawio:G1Pua2GqFB4GcEePWwe37ftAXgRuAa597p|type=svg}}

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir Mumbai.jpg|thumb]]

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir 2 Mumbai.jpg|left|thumb]]
'''About the Temple:''' This is a very ancient shrine of Lord ''Śiva''. The era of construction is not clearly known. However this is a ''siddha pradeśa'', where many great sages attained ''mokṣha'' by serving the Lord.The temple was attacked by invaders and many of the murti or vigrahas were thrown into the near-by ''Chakreśvar Talao'' (lake). Many such old and rare murti or vigrahas were recovered later and put up in the current temple structure. The present structure is relatively new and small. This is the holy place where ''Svāmi Samarth'' performed ''dhyānam'', ''pratiṣhṭha'' of a ''Rām Mandir'' near-by and blessed a ''śiṣhya'' who undertook a ''sajīva samādhi'' at this very place.

This place is so holy that even normal people (some of whom are alive now) were able to see the baba riding on a horse (in the left picture), who resembles Lord ''Śiva''.

'''Near-by Temples:''' Chandika Devi Mandir, Tungareshwar Mandadev Mandir.
[[Category:Temples]]

File:G1Pua2GqFB4GcEePWwe37ftAXgRuAa597p.png

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Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir

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{{ToBeEdited}}

'''Location:''' Nalasopara ~70kms from Mumbai.

{{#drawio:G1Pua2GqFB4GcEePWwe37ftAXgRuAa597p|type=png}}

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir Mumbai.jpg|thumb]]

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir 2 Mumbai.jpg|left|thumb]]
'''About the Temple:''' This is a very ancient shrine of Lord ''Śiva''. The era of construction is not clearly known. However this is a ''siddha pradeśa'', where many great sages attained ''mokṣha'' by serving the Lord.The temple was attacked by invaders and many of the murti or vigrahas were thrown into the near-by ''Chakreśvar Talao'' (lake). Many such old and rare murti or vigrahas were recovered later and put up in the current temple structure. The present structure is relatively new and small. This is the holy place where ''Svāmi Samarth'' performed ''dhyānam'', ''pratiṣhṭha'' of a ''Rām Mandir'' near-by and blessed a ''śiṣhya'' who undertook a ''sajīva samādhi'' at this very place.

This place is so holy that even normal people (some of whom are alive now) were able to see the baba riding on a horse (in the left picture), who resembles Lord ''Śiva''.

'''Near-by Temples:''' Chandika Devi Mandir, Tungareshwar Mandadev Mandir.
[[Category:Temples]]

Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir

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Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir

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{{ToBeEdited}}

'''Location:''' Nalasopara ~70kms from Mumbai.

<nowiki>{{#drawio:G1Pua2GqFB4GcEePWwe37ftAXgRuAa597p}}</nowiki>

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir Mumbai.jpg|thumb]]

[[File:Chakreshvara Mahadeva Mandir 2 Mumbai.jpg|left|thumb]]
'''About the Temple:''' This is a very ancient shrine of Lord ''Śiva''. The era of construction is not clearly known. However this is a ''siddha pradeśa'', where many great sages attained ''mokṣha'' by serving the Lord.The temple was attacked by invaders and many of the murti or vigrahas were thrown into the near-by ''Chakreśvar Talao'' (lake). Many such old and rare murti or vigrahas were recovered later and put up in the current temple structure. The present structure is relatively new and small. This is the holy place where ''Svāmi Samarth'' performed ''dhyānam'', ''pratiṣhṭha'' of a ''Rām Mandir'' near-by and blessed a ''śiṣhya'' who undertook a ''sajīva samādhi'' at this very place.

This place is so holy that even normal people (some of whom are alive now) were able to see the baba riding on a horse (in the left picture), who resembles Lord ''Śiva''.

'''Near-by Temples:''' Chandika Devi Mandir, Tungareshwar Mandadev Mandir.
[[Category:Temples]]

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Temples of India

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[https://templesofindia.org Temples of India] is the largest [[Devalaya Vyavastha (देवालयव्यवस्था)|Hindu Temples]] portal in the world. It contains a listing of around '''7 lakh temples''' from across the country and detailed information of about 5000 temples. You can also [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.tofi.app download] their android app from playstore. The app is available in 7 languages, namely, Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Malyalam.

=== Mission and Vision ===
With a vision of developing a platform for devotees across the globe to gain and share knowledge about ''Bharatiya Sanskriti'' and Temples, students of [https://www.iitb.ac.in IIT Bombay] led by [https://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/~ayusham Ayush Maheshwari] and Arun Jayaramakrishnan started an online repository named 'Temples of India', mentored by [https://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/~ganesh Prof. Ganesh Ramakrishnan].

Temples of India is a non-profit knowledge platform that aims to acquaint the devotees with the teachings of ''Sanatana Dharma'' through its roots which lie in the temples across ''Bharatvarsha.'' This repository enables you to access the information of any temple, known or unknown to you. Their aim is to provide the information in a wholesome way, which makes you feel like experiencing the real aura of the shrine''. Details about the temple's location, images, opening and closing time, their culture and festivals and videos showing this celebration are compiled in a manner that makes your reading experience worth remembering.''

=== How to Contribute ===

# You can add details by downloading their android app [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.tofi.app from here] or open their [https://templesofindia.org/ website] on your laptop.
# You can easily contribute by adding details such as images, open/close timings, puja timings, ''itihas'', etc.
# You could search for the temples and click on edit icon to add details.
# You can easily sign up using your gmail id
# When you submit the details, you will shown as a contributor to the temple page.

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<span style="font-size:16px; font-weight:bold;color:#d85611;"> Intro: Temples of India</span>

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Temples of India

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[https://templesofindia.org Temples of India] is the largest [[Devalaya Vyavastha (देवालयव्यवस्था)|Hindu Temples]] portal in the world. It contains a listing of around 7 lakh temples from across the country and detailed information of about 5000 temples. The portal is available in 7 languages, namely, Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi. Android app is also available [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.tofi.app for download].

=== Mission and Vision ===
With a vision of developing a platform for devotees across the globe to gain and share knowledge about ''Bharatiya Sanskriti'' and Temples, students of [https://www.iitb.ac.in IIT Bombay] led by [https://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/~ayusham Ayush Maheshwari] and Arun Jayaramakrishnan started an online repository named 'Temples of India', mentored by [https://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/~ganesh Prof. Ganesh Ramakrishnan].

Temples of India is a non-profit knowledge platform that aims to acquaint the devotees with the teachings of ''Sanatana Dharma'' through its roots which lie in the temples across ''Bharatvarsha.'' This repository enables you to access the information of any temple, known or unknown to you. Their aim is to provide the information in a wholesome way, which makes you feel like experiencing the real aura of the shrine. Details about the temple's location, images, opening and closing time, their culture and festivals and videos showing this celebration are compiled in a manner that makes your reading experience worth remembering.

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<span style="font-size:16px; font-weight:bold;color:#d85611;"> Intro: Temples of India</span>

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[[Category:Temples in India]]

Shraddha (श्रद्धा)

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{{ToBeEdited}}Shraddha (Samskrit: श्रद्धा) as a concept broadly refers to firm belief towards a deity, person or shastra.<ref name=":4">Dharm P. S. Bhawuk, [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0971333620906758 Sraddha: Construct Definition from the Bhagavad-Gita], SAGE Journals, Volume 32, Issue 1.</ref> As a quality, it is described as the rudimentary stage of Bhakti.<ref name=":15">Tridandi Sri Bhakti Prajnan Yati (1991), [https://archive.org/details/ShandilyaBhaktiSutra Sri Shandilya Bhakti Sutras], Madras: Sree Gaudiya Math.</ref> Shraddha is also a deity in the Rgveda.<ref name=":16" /> And is seen personified across Vedic literature from the Brahmanas, to the Itihasas and Puranas.<ref>Vettam Mani (1975), [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/734/mode/2up Puranic Encyclopaedia], Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.</ref> This article explores the different facets of Shraddha from the Vedas to the Puranas.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
The term Shraddha is explained in Apte's Sanskrit dictionary with the following words: <blockquote>"to believe, put faith in, trust, respect, revere or desire something"</blockquote>It also refers to,
* a state of calmness or composure of the mind
* a firm belief in divine revelation<ref name=":0">Vaman Shivram Apte (1890), The Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary, Poona: Shiralkar & Co., See: [https://archive.org/details/ldpd_7285627_000/page/n1075/mode/2up Shraddha].</ref><ref name=":4" />
Simply put, Shraddha is an emotion one has for a deity, person or shastra (any scriptural text or injunctions that guide human behaviour).<ref name=":4" /> It is the ability or quality to believe in what one does not see and its reward is in seeing what was believed in.<ref name=":17">K.V.Anantharaman (2010), Siva Gita A Critical Study. See: [https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/295754/14/15_appendix.pdf Faith (Glossary)]</ref> It is infact, considered as one of the highest virtues; a gift of the Supreme Being that always bears fruits which carry over to the next life as well.

The highest quality of shraddha is said to be that of a devotee.<ref name=":4" /> It reflects the firm conviction of a bhakta that all of one’s obligations will be fulfilled by adhering to the path of bhakti.<ref>Srimad Bhaktivedanta Narayana Goswami Maharaja (2010), Sri Brhad Bhagavatamrta, Vrndavana: Gaudiya Vedanta Publications. See: [https://www.purebhakti.com/resources/ebooks-magazines/bhakti-books/english/9-brhad-bhagavatamrta-canto-2-volume-1/file Sraddha (Glossary)]</ref> And by accumulating pious devotional activities over many births or by associating with a pure bhakta, one's Shraddha in the statements of Shastras is awakened. And hence, Shraddha is referred to as the first manifestation of the creeper of devotion.<ref>Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura (2003), Sri Bhajana Rahasya, Vrindavan: Gaudiya Vedanta Publications. See: [https://www.purebhakti.com/resources/ebooks-magazines/bhakti-books/english/3-bhajana-rahasya/file Sraddha (Glossary)]</ref><ref>Srimad Bhaktivedanta Narayana Goswami Maharaja (2015), Srimad Bhagavad Gita, Vrindavana: Gaudiya Vedanta Publications. See: [https://www.purebhakti.com/resources/ebooks-magazines/bhakti-books/english/32-bhagavad-gita/file Sraddha (Glossary)]</ref>

Also, it is said that Shraddha reflects the basic nature of people. And an absence of Shraddha causes all efforts to go in vain. The Bhagavad Gita, in Chapter 17 (Shraddha Traya Vibhaga Yoga), explains this indigenous concept of Shraddha with respect to the three gunas (quality or innate tendencies) of Samkhya darshana or philosophy namely, Sattva, rajas and tamas; an understanding of which enriches in general, the understanding of bharatiya adhyatmata.<ref name=":4" />

== श्रद्धायाः महत्त्वम् ॥ Greatness of Shraddha ==

The Samskrit dictionary, Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":2">Shabdakalpadruma, Part 5. See: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5 Shraddha]</ref>, quotes the greatness of Shraddha as enumerated in the Adhyaya named 'Dhenu-dana Mahatmya' from the Agni Purana as follows, <blockquote>
तस्याः प्रशंसा यथा, -- ब्रह्मोवाच ।

“श्रद्धापूर्वा इमे धर्माः श्रद्धा मध्यान्त-संस्थिताः ।

श्रद्धा नित्या प्रतिष्ठाश्च धर्माः श्रंद्धैव कीर्त्तिताः ॥ श्रुतिमात्ररसाः सूक्ष्माः प्रधानपुरुषेश्वराः । श्रद्धामात्रेण गृह्यन्ते न करेण न चक्षुषा ॥ कायक्लेशैर्न बहुभिस्तथवार्थस्य राशिभिः । धर्मः संप्राप्यते सूक्ष्मः श्रद्धाहीनैः सुरैरपि ॥ श्रद्धा धर्मः परः सूक्ष्मः श्रद्धा ज्ञानं हुतं तपः । श्रद्धा स्वर्गश्च मोक्षश्च श्रद्धा सर्वमिदं जगत् ॥ सर्वस्वं जीवितं वापि दद्यादश्रद्धया यदि । नाप्नुयात्तत्फलं किञ्चित् श्रद्धादानं ततो भवेत् ॥ एवं श्रद्धान्वयाः सर्वे सर्वधर्माः प्रकीर्त्तिताः । केशवः श्रद्धया गम्यो ध्येयः पूज्यश्च सर्वदा ॥” इति वह्निपुराणे धेनुदानमाहात्म्याध्यायः ॥<ref name=":1">Raja Radha Kanta Deva (1967), Shabdakalpadrum (Part 5), Varanasi: The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. See: [https://archive.org/details/ShabdaKalpadrumaComplete/page/n2861/mode/2up Shraddha]</ref>

''tasyāḥ praśaṁsā yathā, -- brahmovāca । "śraddhāpūrvā ime dharmāḥ śraddhā madhyānta-saṁsthitāḥ । śraddhā nityā pratiṣṭhāśca dharmāḥ śraṁddhaiva kīrttitāḥ ॥ śrutimātrarasāḥ sūkṣmāḥ pradhānapuruṣeśvarāḥ । śraddhāmātreṇa gr̥hyante na kareṇa na cakṣuṣā ॥ kāyakleśairna bahubhistathavārthasya rāśibhiḥ । dharmaḥ saṁprāpyate sūkṣmaḥ śraddhāhīnaiḥ surairapi ॥ śraddhā dharmaḥ paraḥ sūkṣmaḥ śraddhā jñānaṁ hutaṁ tapaḥ । śraddhā svargaśca mokṣaśca śraddhā sarvamidaṁ jagat ॥ sarvasvaṁ jīvitaṁ vāpi dadyādaśraddhayā yadi । nāpnuyāttatphalaṁ kiñcit śraddhādānaṁ tato bhavet ॥ evaṁ śraddhānvayāḥ sarve sarvadharmāḥ prakīrttitāḥ । keśavaḥ śraddhayā gamyo dhyeyaḥ pūjyaśca sarvadā ॥" iti vahnipurāṇe dhenudānamāhātmyādhyāyaḥ ॥'' </blockquote>

== भगवद्गीतायां श्रद्धा ॥ Shraddha in Bhagavad Gita ==
The term Shraddha appears 17 times in 15 verses across eight chapters in the Bhagavad Gita. The verses being, 3.31, 4.39, 6.37, 6.47, 7.21 (twice), 7.22, 9.23, 12.2, 12.20, 17.1, 17.2, 17.3 (twice), 17.13, 17.17 and 18.71. While Ashraddha, the opposite of shraddha, occurs 4 times across 3 chapters which are, 4.40, 9.3, 17.13 (as a compound word) and 17.28. An analysis of these 19 verses from the Bhagavad Gita bring forth the different facets of the concept of Shraddha that highlights the importance of this construct in understanding Bharatiya worldview and psychology.<ref name=":4" />

=== श्रद्धाप्रकाराः ॥ Types of Shraddha ===
Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":1" /> quotes the verses 17.2, 17.3 and 17.4 from the Bhagavad Gita (Adhyaya 17) and states, <blockquote>सा (श्रद्धा) त्रिविधा ।<ref name=":2" /> ''sā (śraddhā) trividhā ।''</blockquote>ie. shraddha is of 3 types. Namely, Satviki, Rajasi and Tamasi. <blockquote>त्रिविधा भवति श्रद्धा देहिनां सा स्वभावजा । सात्त्विकी राजसी चैव तामसी चेति तां शृणु ॥१७.२॥<ref name=":5">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 17 (Shraddha Traya Vibhaga Yoga)]</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>''trividhā bhavati śraddhā dehināṁ sā svabhāvajā । sāttvikī rājasī caiva tāmasī ceti tāṁ śr̥ṇu ॥17.2॥'' </blockquote>Meaning: Shraddha of people, born of their individual natures, is of three kinds. It is characterized by sattva, rajas or tamas.<ref name=":3">Swami Nikhilananda (1944), [https://estudantedavedanta.net/Srimad%20Bhagavad%20Gita%20with%20Commentary%20-%20Swami%20Nikhilananda%20(1944)%20%5BEnglish%5D.pdf The Bhagavad Gita], New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center.</ref>

This is in response to Arjuna's question to Shri Krishna in verse 17.1 about the nature of people who do not follow the method given in the shastras but worship with Shraddha<ref name=":4" /> that reads as, <blockquote>ये शास्त्रविधिमुत्सृज्य यजन्ते श्रद्धयान्विताः । तेषां निष्ठा तु का कृष्ण सत्त्वमाहो रजस्तमः ॥१७.१॥<ref name=":5" />

''ye śāstravidhimutsr̥jya yajante śraddhayānvitāḥ । teṣāṁ niṣṭhā tu kā kr̥ṣṇa sattvamāho rajastamaḥ ॥17.1॥'' </blockquote>And having enumerated the typology of shraddha from the perspective of Samkhya philosophy<ref name=":4" />, Shri Krishna emphasizes further that Shraddha of each person is in accordance with one's natural disposition. A person is made of his Shraddha; what his Shraddha is, that he verily is.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>सत्त्वानुरूपा सर्वस्य श्रद्धा भवति भारत । श्रद्धामयोऽयं पुरुषो यो यच्छ्रद्धः स एव सः ॥१७.३॥<ref name=":5" />

''sattvānurūpā sarvasya śraddhā bhavati bhārata । śraddhāmayo'yaṁ puruṣo yo yacchraddhaḥ sa eva saḥ ॥17.3॥''</blockquote>In other words, people are the personification of their Shraddha.<ref name=":4" /> In fact, it is so central and essential a thing that the Gita says, whatever is a man’s shraddha, that he is, ''yo yacchraddhaḥ sa eva saḥ.'' And commenting on this verse, Sri Aurobindo adds that whatever one has faith to see as possible in himself and strive for, that one can create and become.<ref name=":18">Sri Aurobindo, [http://www.sriaurobindo.nl/docs/Sri%20Aurobindo/23-24TheSynthesisofYoga.pdf The Synthesis of Yoga], Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust.</ref> Thus, Shraddha has the ability to shape a person.<ref name=":4" /> And the nature of shraddha of a person, reflects in the choices one makes. Hence, it is said further, <blockquote>यजन्ते सात्त्विका देवान्यक्षरक्षांसि राजसाः । प्रेतान्भूतगणांश्चान्ये यजन्ते तामसा जनाः ॥१७.४॥<ref name=":5" />

''yajante sāttvikā devānyakṣarakṣāṁsi rājasāḥ । pretānbhūtagaṇāṁścānye yajante tāmasā janāḥ ॥17.4॥'' </blockquote>Meaning: People in whom sattva prevails worship the deities; people in whom rajas prevails worship the lesser deities and people in whom tamas prevails worship ghosts and evil beings.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

Thus, Shraddha depends on the inner nature of a person and thereby, reflects the basic nature of people. And it is based on one’s shraddha and inherent qualities, that one chooses the kind of yajna, tapas and dana one performs.<ref name=":4" />

=== यज्ञदानतपकर्मसु श्रद्धा ॥ Shraddha in Yajna, Dana, Tapa and Karma ===

The Bhagavad Gita states that yajna, dana, tapa and karma are auspicious and must always be performed.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>
यज्ञदानतपःकर्म न त्याज्यं कार्यमेव तत् । यज्ञो दानं तपश्चैव पावनानि मनीषिणाम् ॥१८.५॥<ref name=":7" />

''yajñadānatapaḥkarma na tyājyaṁ kāryameva tat । yajño dānaṁ tapaścaiva pāvanāni manīṣiṇām ॥18.5॥'' </blockquote>And as explained in the previous section of the article, one's choice of yajna, dana, tapa or karma depends on one's inherent qualities that are driven either by Sattva, Rajas or Tamas. Consequently, in verses 17.11, 17.12 and 17.13, the Bhagavad Gita points out to three types of yajnas viz. Sattvika, Rajasa and Tamasa. And it is mentioned therein that absence of shraddha makes a yajna tamasika in nature.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>श्रद्धाविरहितं यज्ञं तामसं परिचक्षते ॥१७.१३॥<ref name=":5" /> ''śraddhāvirahitaṁ yajñaṁ tāmasaṁ paricakṣate ॥17.13॥'' </blockquote>Thus, this verse is both a prohibition against performing a yajna without shraddha and an instruction for performing yajna with shraddha. Because when performed without shraddha, not only yajna but dana, tapa and karma also become asat (or inauspicious) and bear no fruit in this world or beyond.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>अश्रद्धया हुतं दत्तं तपस्तप्तं कृतं च यत् । असदित्युच्यते पार्थ न च तत्प्रेत्य नो इह ॥१७.२८॥<ref name=":5" />

''aśraddhayā hutaṁ dattaṁ tapastaptaṁ kr̥taṁ ca yat । asadityucyate pārtha na ca tatpretya no iha ॥17.28॥'' </blockquote>Thus, shraddha is the foundation of Yajna, Dana, Tapa and Karma as it is the presence of shraddha that makes them virtuous.<ref name=":4" />

== भगवति श्रद्धा ॥ Shraddha in a Deity ==

Shri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita tells Arjuna that any devotee who wants to worship with shraddha, whatever form of deity it may be, He bestows unflinching shraddha to that devotee so that he or she can worship that deity.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>
यो यो यां यां तनुं भक्तः श्रद्धयार्चितुमिच्छति । तस्य तस्याचलां श्रद्धां तामेव विदधाम्यहम् ॥७.२१॥<ref name=":19">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 7 (Jnana Vijnana Yoga)]</ref>

''yo yo yāṁ yāṁ tanuṁ bhaktaḥ śraddhayārcitumicchati । tasya tasyācalāṁ śraddhāṁ tāmeva vidadhāmyaham ॥7.21॥'' </blockquote>There are two points to be noted in this verse.
* First, one can worship any form of deity one wishes to with Shraddha. Meaning, one is free to choose one's spiritual practice, and Shri Krishna endows the necessary shraddha. In other words, shraddha is needed in worshipping a deity or pursuing any spiritual practice. Thus, shraddha is an emotion one has for a deity.
* Second, Shri Krishna blesses those who have shraddha. That is, shraddha shown by human beings begets divine shraddha or grace from Shri Krishna.

=== भगवच्छ्रद्धा फलम् ॥ Fruit of Shraddha in a Deity ===

Continuing from verse 7.21 quoted above, Shri Krishna further states that when a devotee worships the deity of his or her choice with the divine shraddha provided by Him, their desires are fulfilled by Shri Krishna himself.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>
स तया श्रद्धया युक्तस्तस्याराधनमीहते । लभते च ततः कामान्मयैव विहितान्हि तान् ॥७.२२॥<ref name=":19" />

''sa tayā śraddhayā yuktastasyārādhanamīhate । labhate ca tataḥ kāmānmayaiva vihitānhi tān ॥7.22॥'' </blockquote>Therefore, shraddha is not only something that brings one to Shri Krishna but also continues to bring the blessings of Shri Krishna to the devotees, whoever and however they worship. Thus, shraddha is a gift of the Supreme, a divine grace.<ref name=":4" />
== आप्तेषु श्रद्धा ॥ Shraddha in a Person or Shastra ==

In Vivekachudamani, Shri Shankaracharya says,<blockquote>
शास्त्रस्य गुरवाक्यस्य सत्यबुद्ध्यवधारणम् । सा श्रद्धा कथिता सद्भिर्यया वस्तूपलभ्यते ॥ २५ ॥

''śāstrasya guravākyasya satyabuddhyavadhāraṇam । sā śraddhā kathitā sadbhiryayā vastūpalabhyate ॥ 25 ॥''</blockquote>Meaning: Acceptance by firm judgment of the mind as true of what the scriptures and the Guru instruct, is called by the sages as Shraddha, by means of which the Reality is perceived.<ref>Swami Madhavananda (1921), [https://estudantedavedanta.net/VivekaChudamani-of-Sri-Shankaracharya.pdf Vivekachudamani of Sri Sankaracharya], Mayavati: The Advaita Ashrama.</ref>

This emphasizes on the importance of cultivating shraddha for a person (Guru) or Shastra.<ref name=":4" />

=== गुरौ श्रद्धा ॥ Shraddha in a Guru ===
When Arjuna, confused about his duty, was inclined to act in a cowardly manner, he surrenders to Shri Krishna as a student and beseeches Shri Krishna to instruct him firmly to do what was best for him.<ref name=":4" /> He says, <blockquote>कार्पण्यदोषोपहतस्वभावः पृच्छामि त्वां धर्मसम्मूढचेताः । यच्छ्रेयः स्यान्निश्चितं ब्रूहि तन्मे शिष्यस्तेऽहं शाधि मां त्वां प्रपन्नम् ॥२.७॥<ref name=":9">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 2 (Sankhya Yoga)]</ref>

''kārpaṇyadoṣopahatasvabhāvaḥ pr̥cchāmi tvāṁ dharmasammūḍhacetāḥ ।''

''yacchreyaḥ syānniścitaṁ brūhi tanme śiṣyaste'haṁ śādhi māṁ tvāṁ prapannam ॥2.7॥''</blockquote>This reflects the shraddha one places in another person, especially a guru or teacher. Similarly, at the end of the Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna tells Shri Krishna that by Shri Krishna's grace his confusion was dispelled, he was free of doubts, had gained his discriminatory faculty and was now ready to follow Shri Krishna's instructions.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>नष्टो मोहः स्मृतिर्लब्धा त्वत्प्रसादान्मयाच्युत । स्थितोऽस्मि गतसन्देहः करिष्ये वचनं तव ॥१८.७३॥<ref name=":7">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 18 (Moksha Sannyasa Yoga)]</ref>

''naṣṭo mohaḥ smr̥tirlabdhā tvatprasādānmayācyuta । sthito'smi gatasandehaḥ kariṣye vacanaṁ tava ॥18.73॥'' </blockquote>This shows that a student not only surrenders to his or her teacher but also listens to and carries out the instructions of the teacher. This is nothing but showing shraddha to a person. Thus, shraddha is also an emotion that a student has for a teacher.<ref name=":4" />

=== शास्त्रेषु श्रद्धा ॥ Shraddha in Shastras ===

Adhyaya 12 of the Bhagavad Gita (verses 12.13-12.19) presents characteristics of devotees who are dear to Shri Krishna like being in a balanced state, not having any negative feeling towards other beings, always being content with whatever comes one’s way, etc.<ref name=":4" /> The concluding verse of this adhyaya reads as follows: <blockquote>
ये तु धर्म्यामृतमिदं यथोक्तं पर्युपासते । श्रद्दधाना मत्परमा भक्तास्तेऽतीव मे प्रियाः ॥१२.२०॥<ref name=":10">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 12 (Bhakti Yoga)]</ref>

''ye tu dharmyāmr̥tamidaṁ yathoktaṁ paryupāsate । śraddadhānā matparamā bhaktāste'tīva me priyāḥ ॥12.20॥'' </blockquote>Meaning: Devotees who worship Shri Krishna by surrendering to Him with deep shraddha and follow the dharmika (pious) and nectar-like instructions meticulously are dearest to Him.

By instructions here, is meant what is stated in shastras or scriptures. Therefore, it is conveyed that it is not enough to have shraddha merely for a deity or person, rather an individual needs to have shraddha also in shastras (or scriptural texts) that guide human behaviour.<ref name=":4" />

==== शास्त्रश्रद्धाफलम् ॥ Fruit of Shraddha in Shastras ====

In verse 3.30 of the Bhagavad Gita, Shri Krishna says, <blockquote>
मयि सर्वाणि कर्माणि संन्यस्याध्यात्मचेतसा । निराशीर्निर्ममो भूत्वा युध्यस्व विगतज्वरः ॥३.३०॥<ref name=":20">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 3 (Karma Yoga)]</ref>

''mayi sarvāṇi karmāṇi saṁnyasyādhyātmacetasā । nirāśīrnirmamo bhūtvā yudhyasva vigatajvaraḥ ॥3.30॥'' </blockquote>Meaning: Surrendering all your actions to Me, with a mind focussed on the self, free from desire and selfishness, fight having eased the heat of excitement.<ref>Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 3, [https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?language=dv&field_chapter_value=3&field_nsutra_value=30&etsiva=1&etpurohit=1&etgb=1&etssa=1&etadi=1&choose=1 Verse 30 (Translation)]</ref>

This is nothing but a directive expounded by Shri Krishna Himself. And thereby, it is to be trusted as it is an apta-vachana or shastra-vachana (authoritative statement). Shri Krishna says, those who constantly follow this doctrine of Mine, with faith and without finding fault (in it), such people are freed from (the results of) all actions.<ref>Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 3, [https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?etsiva=1&etpurohit=1&etgb=1&etssa=1&etadi=1&choose=1&&language=dv&field_chapter_value=3&field_nsutra_value=31 Verse 31 (Translation)]</ref><blockquote>ये मे मतमिदं नित्यमनुतिष्ठन्ति मानवाः । श्रद्धावन्तोऽनसूयन्तो मुच्यन्ते तेऽपि कर्मभिः ॥३.३१॥<ref name=":20" />

''ye me matamidaṁ nityamanutiṣṭhanti mānavāḥ । śraddhāvanto'nasūyanto mucyante te'pi karmabhiḥ ॥3.31॥''</blockquote>This verse illustrates that when we place shraddha on an entity, we do not find fault with it. Consequently, there is no question of harbouring feelings of envy or jealousy towards the entity we have shraddha for. Thus, shraddha is associated with anasuya (absence of envy/jealousy). Moreover, the behavioural outcome of shraddha is not finding faults in others that has implications for spiritual practitioners. For, not harbouring asuya or jealousy for anyone breaks the boundaries between self and others. Therefore, shraddha is contrasted with asuya (envy, jealousy or indignation caused by happiness of others) and spiritual practitioners are directed to cultivate shraddha and anasuya.<ref name=":4" />

== साधनाङ्गः ॥ Integral Part of Sadhana ==
It is said that in a spiritual journey, one has to be eagerly engaged in the practice one has selected and the effort must lead to control of the senses. And Shri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita emphasizes that this is possible only for a person who is endowed with Shraddha.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>श्रद्धावाँल्लभते ज्ञानं तत्परः संयतेन्द्रियः । ४.३९ ।<ref name=":6" /> ''śraddhāvām̐llabhate jñānaṁ tatparaḥ saṁyatendriyaḥ । 4.39 ।''</blockquote>Commenting on this verse Adi Shankaracharya says that practices like prostrations, etc. are external in nature and invariably, not fruitful as they can be performed even by fraudulent or deceitful people. However, it is not so in the case of those endowed with Shraddha.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>प्रणिपातादिस्तु बाह्योऽनैकान्तिकोऽपि भवति मायावित्वादिसंभवात् न तु तत् श्रद्धावत्त्वादौ...<ref name=":21">Bhagavad Gita, Adhyaya 4, [https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?language=dv&field_chapter_value=4&field_nsutra_value=39&htshg=1&scsh=1&etsiva=1&etpurohit=1&etgb=1&setgb=1&etssa=1&etadi=1 Verse 39 with Shankara Bhashya and translation] </ref>

''praṇipātādistu bāhyo'naikāntiko'pi bhavati māyāvitvādisaṁbhavāt na tu tat śraddhāvattvādau...'' </blockquote>This indicates that shraddha is an internal quality and a necessary condition for spiritual practices. For, without shraddha, all the efforts and control of senses go in vain.<ref name=":4" /> Even in the yoga sutras, shraddha is mentioned as one of the key factors for attaining 'Samadhi', the final stage described in Ashtangayoga.<blockquote>श्रद्धावीर्यस्मृतिसमाधिप्रज्ञापूर्वक इतरेषाम् ॥२०॥<ref>Yoga Sutra, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_-_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Pada 1]</ref> śraddhāvīryasmr̥tisamādhiprajñāpūrvaka itareṣām ॥20॥</blockquote>Meaning: To others (this Samadhi) comes through faith, energy, memory, concentration, and discrimination of the real.<ref>Swami Vivekananda, [http://www.hinduonline.co/DigitalLibrary/SmallBooks/PatanjaliYogaSutraSwamiVivekanandaSanEng.pdf Patanjali Yoga Sutras]</ref>

Infact, Shri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita eulogises shraddha as the highest virtue and emphasizes that even among yogis (practitioners of yoga) the best is one who chants the name of Shri Krishna surrendering with shraddha.<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>योगिनामपि सर्वेषां मद्गतेनान्तरात्मना । श्रद्धावान् भजते यो मां स मे युक्ततमो मतः ॥६.४७॥<ref name=":22">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 6 (Atma Samyama Yoga)]</ref>

yogināmapi sarveṣāṁ madgatenāntarātmanā । śraddhāvān bhajate yo māṁ sa me yuktatamo mataḥ ॥6.47॥</blockquote>This clearly lays out the importance of shraddha in the practice of spirituality.<ref name=":4" />

=== Shraddha in Integral Yoga ===
Integral yoga, mentioned by Sri Aurobindo, refers to a sort of synthesis of all the different systems of yoga. In the practice of this system, there is one kind of faith demanded as indispensable which is faith in the divine and the Shakti, faith in the presence and power of the Divine in us and the world, a faith that all in the world is the working of one divine Shakti, that all the steps of Yoga, its strivings, sufferings and failures as well as its successes, satisfactions and victories are utilities and necessities of her workings and that by a firm and strong dependence on and a total self-surrender to the Divine and to his Shakti in us we can attain to oneness, freedom, victory and perfection.

Elaborationg further on perfection, Sri Aurobindo emphasizes that there are three parts of the perfection of our instrumental nature including perfection of intelligence, heart, vital consciousness and body, perfection of the surrender of our instruments and action to the divine Shakti, etc. And he says that they depend at every moment of their progression on a fourth power that is covertly and overtly the pivot of all endeavour and action ie. shraddha or faith. This perfect faith he describes as an assent of the whole being to the truth seen by it or offered to its acceptance. According to him, its central working is a faith of the atman in its own will to be, attain and become; its idea of self and things and its knowledge, of which the belief of the intellect, the heart’s consent and the desire of the life mind to possess and realise are the outward figures. This faith, he says, in some form of itself, is indispensable to the action of the being. Because, without it, man cannot move a single pace in life, much less take any step forward to a yet unrealised perfection.<ref name=":18" />

* '''Character and the Need of Shraddha'''

The progress of Yoga is explained by Sri Aurobindo as a procession from the mental ignorance through imperfect formations to a perfect foundation and increasing of knowledge and in its more satisfyingly positive parts a movement from light to greater light, and it cannot cease till we have the greatest light of the supramental knowledge. Therefore, the motions of the mind in its progress must necessarily be mixed with a greater or lesser proportion of error and hence, he says that faith of the heart and the life mind, like that of the intelligence, must be capable of a constant correction, enlarging and transformation. So that it is prepared to change and enlarge its understanding of spiritual experiences, to correct mistaken or half-true ideas about them and receive more enlightening interpretations, to replace insufficient by more sufficient intuitions, and to merge experiences that seemed at the time to be final and satisfying in more satisfying combinations with new experience and greater largenesses and transcendences.

Specifying the character of shraddha needed for the integral Yoga, Sri Aurobindo says, a great and wide, spiritual and intelligent faith, intelligent with the intelligence of that larger reason which assents to high possibilities, is the character of the shraddha needed for the integral Yoga. He says, this shraddha is in reality an influence from the supreme Spirit and its light a message from our supramental being which is calling the lower nature to rise out of its petty present to a great self-becoming and self-exceeding. And that which receives this influence and answers to the call is not so much the intellect, the heart or the life mind, but the inner atman which better knows the truth of its own destiny and mission.

Because the intellect, the heart, or the desires of the life mind may take a prominent place in the circumstances that provoke our first entry into the path; but if these are all, then there can be no surety of our fidelity to the call and our enduring perseverance in the Yoga. For, the intellect may abandon the idea that attracted it, the heart weary may fail us, the desire of the life mind may turn to other objectives. But if it is the spirit that has been touched, the inward atman that has received the call, shraddha will remain firm and resist all attempts to defeat or slay it.<ref name=":18" />

* '''Importance of Shraddha in the Path of Integral Yoga'''

Describing the journey of a seeker in the path of integral yoga, Sri Aurobindo says that a seeker's progress is an ascent from level to level and each new height brings in other vistas and revelations of the much that has still to be done, bhurikartvam, till the divine Shakti has at last taken up all his endeavour and he has only to assent and participate gladly by a consenting oneness in her luminous workings. And that which will support him through these changes, struggles, transformations which might otherwise dishearten and baffle is a firm faith in the Shakti that is at work and reliance on the guidance of the Master of the Yoga whose wisdom is not in haste and whose steps through all the perplexities of the mind are assured, just and sound, because they are founded on a perfectly comprehending transaction with the necessities of our nature.

In short, one's faith must be an assent that receives all spiritual experience, but with a wide openness and readiness for always more light and truth, an absence of limiting attachment and no such clinging to forms as would interfere with the forward movement of the Shakti towards the integrality of the spiritual being, consciousness, knowledge, power, action and the wholeness of the one and the multiple Ananda.

Moreover, he emphasizes that faith in the Shakti must necessarily be preceded or at least accompanied by a firm and virile faith in our own spiritual will and energy and our power to move successfully towards unity and freedom and perfection. At the same time, this faith in oneself must be purified from all touch of rajasic egoism and spiritual pride. The faith in the divine Shakti must be always at the back of our strength and when she becomes manifest, it must be or grow implicit and complete. The intimate feeling of her presence and her powers and the satisfied assent of all our being to her workings in and around it is the last perfection of faith in the Shakti. And behind her is the Ishwara and faith in him is the most central thing in the shraddha of the integral Yoga.<ref name=":18" />

* '''Foundation of Divine Strength'''

Sri Aurobindo says that once faith is developed to perfection, as higher knowledge opens, it becomes more and more justified as we begin to see the great and small significances that escaped our limited mentality. And faith will pass into knowledge.

According to him, the highest state of assent, the shraddha of the being will be when we feel the presence of the Ishwara and feel all our existence and consciousness and thought and will and action in his hand and consent in all things and with every part of our self and nature to the direct and immanent and occupying will of the Spirit. And that highest perfection of the shraddha will also be the opportunity and perfect foundation of a divine strength: it will base, when complete, the development and manifestation and the works of the luminous supramental Shakti.

This exposition on Shraddha, especially within the context of integral yoga, also exemplifies why, as agreed by Sri Aurobindo, the English word faith is inadequate to express the connotations of the concept of shraddha.<ref name=":18" />

== साधकगुणः ॥ Quality of a Sadhaka ==

In verse 12.1 of the Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna asks Shri Krishna as to who is a better spiritual practitioner, one who follows bhaktiyoga (the path of devotion) or one who follows jnanayoga (the path of knowledge).<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>
एवं सततयुक्ता ये भक्तास्त्वां पर्युपासते । ये चाप्यक्षरमव्यक्तं तेषां के योगवित्तमाः ॥१२.१॥<ref name=":10" />

evaṁ satatayuktā ye bhaktāstvāṁ paryupāsate । ye cāpyakṣaramavyaktaṁ teṣāṁ ke yogavittamāḥ ॥12.1॥</blockquote>In response to this, Shri Krishna replies that <blockquote>मय्यावेश्य मनो ये मां नित्ययुक्ता उपासते । श्रद्धया परयोपेतास्ते मे युक्ततमा मताः ॥१२.२॥<ref name=":10" />

mayyāveśya mano ye māṁ nityayuktā upāsate । śraddhayā parayopetāste me yuktatamā matāḥ ॥12.2॥ </blockquote>Meaning: The best spiritual practitioner is one who fixes his or her mind on Shri Krishna and is always engaged in worshipping Shri Krishna with deep shraddha.

In this context, it is noted that an earlier verse of the Bhagavad Gita mentions that only those who have shraddha obtain knowledge.<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>श्रद्धावाँल्लभते ज्ञानं ... ॥४.३९॥<ref name=":6" /> śraddhāvām̐llabhate jñānaṁ ... ॥4.39॥</blockquote>Thus, shraddha is what describes a spiritual practitioner, both who practices bhaktiyoga (the path of devotion) and jnanayoga (the path of knowledge); thereby, establishing the unequivocal relevance of shraddha to both the paths ie. the path of knowledge and that of devotion. Moreover, in verse 12.2, Shri Krishna firmly states that the path of devotion is superior to the path of knowledge and uses shraddha to define devotion. And emphasizes in the concluding verse of the same adhyaya that enumerates on bhaktiyoga that those endowed with shraddha are dearest to Him.<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>ये तु धर्म्यामृतमिदं यथोक्तं पर्युपासते । श्रद्दधाना मत्परमा भक्तास्तेऽतीव मे प्रियाः ॥१२.२०॥<ref name=":10" />

ye tu dharmyāmr̥tamidaṁ yathoktaṁ paryupāsate । śraddadhānā matparamā bhaktāste'tīva me priyāḥ ॥12.20॥</blockquote>Thus, shraddha is a bhava (emotion) that one has for another person; in this case, Shri Krishna who is none other than the Supreme being personified. And the shraddha of a devotee is considered the highest of virtues.<ref name=":4" />

== मोक्षसाधनत्वम् ॥ Shraddha as Moksha Sadhana ==

In the Bhagavad Gita, Shri Krishna says, <blockquote>
श्रद्धावाँल्लभते ज्ञानं तत्परः संयतेन्द्रियः । ज्ञानं लब्ध्वा परां शान्तिमचिरेणाधिगच्छति ॥४.३९॥<ref name=":6" />

śraddhāvām̐llabhate jñānaṁ tatparaḥ saṁyatendriyaḥ । jñānaṁ labdhvā parāṁ śāntimacireṇādhigacchati ॥4.39॥ </blockquote>Meaning: A person who has shraddha, is eagerly engaged in the spiritual practice that one has chosen and is in control of his or her senses, achieves jnana or knowledge of the self. And having attained knowledge, one immediately achieves unparalleled or supreme peace.

Thus, the first line of this verse presents shraddha as antecedent of jnana with tatparaḥ ie. eager engagement in a spiritual practice and saṁyatendriyaḥ ie. practice of self-restraint moderating this relationship between shraddha and Jnana. And the second line points out to the consequence of achieving jnana ie. attaining immediate and unparalleled peace; which is interpreted as moksa by Adi Shankaracharya in his commentary on this verse.<ref name=":4" /> He says,<blockquote>ज्ञानं लब्ध्वा परं मोक्षाख्यां शान्तिम् उपरतिम् अचिरेण क्षिप्रमेव अधिगच्छति।<ref name=":21" />

jñānaṁ labdhvā paraṁ mokṣākhyāṁ śāntim uparatim acireṇa kṣiprameva adhigacchati।</blockquote>In short, shraddha is antecedent of jnana; while jnana (or knowledge) mediates between shraddha (reverence) and moksa. And since moksa is the highest pursuit of life in Bharata, the other three being dharma (duty), artha (wealth) and kama (pleasure), shraddha occupies an important place in the Bharatiya worldview.<ref name=":4" />

=== कालातीतं फलम् ॥ Everlasting Nature of the Fruit ===
The preceeding section elaborated on verse 4.39 that presented shraddha as a necessary condition for achieving jnana. Building on this, after the explanation of many other things, Arjuna asks Shri Krishna in verse 6.37<ref name=":4" />,<blockquote>अयतिः श्रद्धयोपेतो योगाच्चलितमानसः । अप्राप्य योगसंसिद्धिं कां गतिं कृष्ण गच्छति ॥६.३७॥<ref name=":22" />

ayatiḥ śraddhayopeto yogāccalitamānasaḥ । aprāpya yogasaṁsiddhiṁ kāṁ gatiṁ kr̥ṣṇa gacchati ॥6.37॥</blockquote>Meaning: What happens ultimately to the person who has shraddha but fails to make the necessary effort or does not succeed in the path of spirituality because of unsteady manas or mind.

This is one of the many important questions Arjuna asks of Shri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita. And in verses 6.40–6.47, Shri Krishna explains that nothing is lost for the person who has shraddha and who has made some effort. Such a person picks up in the next life from the same state that he or she has been in the present life. That is, no merit is lost even while transitioning to a new life. Thus, shraddha always bears fruits that are never lost; they do not diminish in value even with rebirth. It is highest of virtues with everlasting outcomes.<ref name=":4" />

== श्रद्धाफलम् ॥ Fruit of Shraddha ==
In the Bhagavad Gita, Sri Krishna says,

श्रद्धावाँल्लभते ज्ञानं तत्परः संयतेन्द्रियः । ज्ञानं लब्ध्वा परां शान्तिमचिरेणाधिगच्छति ॥४-३९॥<ref name=":6">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 4 (Jnana Karma Sannyasa Yoga)]</ref>

Meaning: The one who is full of faith (shraddha) and zeal and has subdued his senses obtains knowledge; having obtained knowledge, he soon attains Supreme Peace.<ref name=":3" />

The analysis of Bhagavad Gita resulted in nine themes, and many behavioural outcomes of shraddha such as not finding faults in others.

Further, shraddha is also used to explicate other constructs like yajña, tapas (austerities), dāna (charity) and karma (action), thus highlighting the importance of this construct in understanding Indian worldview and psychology.

The analyses of shraddha gave eight themes, and the analysis of ashraddha gave one theme. The nine themes derived from the analyses of the 19 verses from the Bhagavad-Gītā are presented in the next section.<ref name=":4" />

shraddha and moksa

अध्येष्यते च य इमं धर्म्यं संवादमावयोः । ज्ञानयज्ञेन तेनाहमिष्टः स्यामिति मे मतिः ॥१८- ७०॥

श्रद्धावाननसूयश्च शृणुयादपि यो नरः । सोऽपि मुक्तः शुभाँल्लोकान्प्राप्नुयात्पुण्यकर्मणाम् ॥१८.७१॥<ref name=":7" />

In verse 18.71, Krsna tells Arjuna that those who have shraddha and are also not envious (ansūyah), even by listening to the dialogue (in the Bhagavad-Gītā), definitely become free and go to auspicious places (beyond earth) because of their meritorious karma or actions. In this and the previous verse (18.70), Krsna emphasises the merit of studying the Bhagavad-Gītā, and in doing so employs shraddha and anasūya (absence of envy) as the two virtues. It builds on what is presented earlier in the analysis of verse 3.31, where anasūya was also emphasised along with shraddha. Thus, the '''importance of shraddha is emphasised for achieving moksa''', which is one of the four purusārthas or life pursuits prescribed for Bharatiyas. It should also be noted that people can have shraddha for texts like the Bhagavad-Gītā.

Jnana or knowledge is seen as mediating between shraddha and moksa or liberation. This relationship is moderated by tatparah (or eager engagement in the spiritual practice one has chosen) and samyatendriyah (or practicing self-restraint).

shraddha: Always bears fruits

येऽप्यन्यदेवताभक्ता यजन्ते श्रद्धयान्विताः । तेऽपि मामेव कौन्तेय यजन्त्यविधिपूर्वकम् ॥९.२३॥<ref name=":8">Bhagavad Gita, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Chapter 9 (Raja Vidya Raja Guhya Yoga)]</ref>

In verse 9.23, Krsna tells Arjuna that those devotees who worship other devas (Śiva, Indra, Rudra and so forth) with shraddha are still worshipping Krsna, albeit not following proper procedure. This verse elaborates on the ideas presented in verses 7.21 and 7.22, and states that even if shraddha is placed in other deities, and not Krsna, such ‘misplaced’ shraddha is still placed in him. Thus, shraddha never gets misplaced and always bears fruit.

This verse is in effect similar to verse 2.40, where Krsna proclaims that effort invested in the practice of karmayoga (a spiritual practice in which action is emphasised without attachment to rewards also called nishkama karma), one of the practices of spirituality, neither suffers a loss, nor is there an adverse effect; and even a little bit of practice helps a person to get over his or her biggest of fears. Thus, '''shraddha is integral to the procedure that makes efforts bear fruit in the practice of spirituality.'''

नेहाभिक्रमनाशोऽस्ति प्रत्यवायो न विद्यते । स्वल्पमप्यस्य धर्मस्य त्रायते महतो भयात् ॥२.४०॥<ref name=":9" />

=== संहृतिः ॥ Synopsis ===
shraddha: Construct Definition from the Bhagavad-Gītā by Dharm P. S. Bhawuk

In this article, the construct of shraddha is derived from the Bhagavad-Gītā, a dialogue between Shri Krsna and Arjuna, which takes place in the Mahābhārata after Arjuna shares his quandary with him relating to fighting his kins.<ref name=":4" />

Deriving the meaning of the construct of shraddha from the Bhagavad-Gītā.

17.17

श्रद्धया परया तप्तं तपस्तत्त्रिविधं नरैः । अफलाकाङ्क्षिभिर्युक्तैः सात्त्विकं परिचक्षते ॥१७.१७॥<ref name=":5" />

Synopsis

shraddha can be of several types. According to the Bhagavad Gītā, the shraddha of a devotee following the path of devotion is of the highest type. It is clear that shraddha occupies a central place in whatever path of spirituality is followed. Also shraddha is the antecedent of jñāna, and the relationship between shraddha and jñāna is moderated by tatparah (or eager engagement in a practice) and samyatendriyah (or practicing selfrestraint). The value of an individual’s effort who is on the path of spirituality is not lost either. Further, as jñāna acts as a mediator between shraddha and moksa (or liberation), shraddha becomes an instrument of moksa, the highest life pursuit of humans in the Indian worldview, the other three being dharma or duty, artha or wealth, and kāma or pleasure. Such a complex understanding cannot be captured by single word translations of the construct of shraddha in English or other languages;

According to the Bhagavad-Gītā, one must always perform yajña, dāna, tapas, and karma. When one gives away something (dāna), one may suffer some loss but that may be considered tyāga or sacrifice, which is considered a kind of tapas. Considering the complex relationship between dāna and tapas, Prof Bhawuk proposes that dāna and tapas are interrelated constructs and can be visualised as occupying a common semantic space. In a similar fashion, all activities (karma) done for lokasamgraha or for the good of people too may be considered sacrifice or tapas. All karma, dāna, and tapas done with niskāmabhāva or without attachment to the rewards from the expected outcomes are considered sāttvika acts. They are part of a sāttvika yajña, and constitute components of a spiritual practice. Thus, dāna and tapas, karma and tapas, karma and yajña, dāna and yajña and tapas and yajña are pairs of constructs that not only intercorrelate but also share common semantic spaces. What is central to all the activities is that if yajña, dāna, tapas and karma are performed with shraddha, it makes these four activities part of sat or truth. Its absence makes them go futile as they lose their relationships. Thus, shraddha occupies a central position in the nomological network of yajña, dāna, tapas and karma.

shraddha reflects the basic nature of people and a person may be seen more or less as personification of shraddha. It expresses itself in very different kinds of behaviours that people engage in. For example, many people in India go to temples like the one at Guruvāyura, but depending on their shraddha, each acts differently. Some go around the temple by walking at normal pace; others walk slowly, foot-to-foot, much like a mindful walk; and yet others roll over sideways in going around the temple. This perhaps illustrates how shraddha captures the basic nature of people.

In the West, optimists are those who have a positive attitude and find the proverbial glass as half full. They are known to find opportunities even in difficult and dire situations. Contrary to them, pessimists see the glass as half empty, and are often cynical and unwilling to work through challenges to bring about changes in their own personal lives, organisations or societies. It may be considered that such basic nature of the optimists or pessimists reflects shraddha of the person in self, others, society and the Divine. Prof Bhawuk believes that shraddha may be used as a foundational construct for understanding both positive and negative psychologies.

From interpersonal perspective it was found that shraddha is an emotion that one has for another person. For example, a śraddhāvan student, much like Arjuna did to Krsna, follows the instructions of a teacher by surrendering to him or her. The teacher fulfils the student’s wish for knowledge and provides necessary instructions to guide him or her to perform his or her duty. The characteristics of shraddha-based exchange between a teacher and a student will also apply to all superior–subordinate dyads like parent–child, older–brother–younger–brother and so forth. The same dynamics is likely to be at play between a person and his or her deity or God. Since śāstras or scriptural texts, which provide instructions in guiding human behaviour, they too are treated in the same manner by a śraddhāvan individual.

It was noted that though individual effort moderates the relation between shraddha and liberation, shraddha is also considered a gift of the Supreme Being or divine grace. Such grace of the divine that appears as shraddha can be seen reflected in the daily interactions of spiritual practitioners. For example, a spiritual practitioner’s harmonising behaviour is likely to emerge from his or her neutrality towards all, and not viewing people (or contexts) in terms of dichotomies like friend or enemy, good or bad, favourable or antagonistic, and so forth. Thus, the construct of shraddha can be employed to examine how social entrepreneurs can possibly effect social change.

In view of the above, it appears that shraddha is a unique Indian indigenous construct that needs to be studied to help us understand not only the psychology of Indian people but also of people in societies which are similarly inclined. Understanding shraddha is also likely to help us understand other major constructs. It should also help us understand interpersonal relationships, since shraddha is the foundation of many relationships, which hitherto has been neglected by researchers. It is hoped that the thick description of the construct of shraddha and the proposed nomological network will contribute to both Indian and global psychologies, and stimulate both basic and applied research.<ref name=":4" />

== श्रद्धाविहिनत्वम् ॥ Absence of shraddha ==
अज्ञश्चाश्रद्दधानश्च संशयात्मा विनश्यति । नायं लोकोऽस्ति न परो न सुखं संशयात्मनः ॥४.४०॥<ref name=":6" />

In verse 4.40 Krsna tells Arjuna that those who are ignorant, without shraddha, and sceptical are ruined, completely lose out on achievements both in this world and beyond, and also do not find happiness. In this verse, absence of shraddha is equated to lack of knowledge.

Verse 4.39 also states that only those who have shraddha obtain knowledge (śraddhāvān labhate jñānam). Further, absence of shraddha is equated to being sceptical, and shraddha is also presented as a precondition of happiness.

अश्रद्दधानाः पुरुषा धर्मस्यास्य परन्तप । अप्राप्य मां निवर्तन्ते मृत्युसंसारवर्त्मनि ॥९.३॥<ref name=":8" />

In verse 9.3, Krsna tells Arjuna that people without shraddha in the teachings of Krsna go through the cycle of life and death without attaining moksa.

== Shraddha as a Deity ==
The deity of the Rigveda Sukta 10.151 is shraddha.<ref name=":16">Rigveda, Mandala 10, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A7 Sukta 151]</ref>

=== In the Brahmanas ===
In the Taittiriya Brahmana<ref>Taittiriya Brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Prapathaka 12]</ref>, shraddha is the daughter of प्रजापति and in Shatapatha Brahmana of the Sun.

श्रद्धा वै सूर्यस्य दुहिता... ।१२.७.३.११।<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana, Kanda 12, Adhyaya 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A5%A9 Brahmana 3]</ref>

=== In the Itihasa and Puranas ===
'''Mahabharata''' - Shraddha Yajna

अग्रे सर्वेषु यज्ञेषु श्रद्धायज्ञो विधीयते। 12.59.44 (60.40)

दैवतं हि महच्छ्रद्धा पवित्रं यजतां च यत्। 12.59.44 (60.41)<ref name=":11">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-059 Adhyaya 59]</ref>

Meaning: Of all forms of Yajnas, Shraddha Yajna is the foremost as Shraddha is the greatest deity who purifies those performing the Yajnas.<ref name=":12">Ramnarayanadutta Shastri Pandey, Mahabharata (Vol.5 Shanti Parva), Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

यज्ञो मनीषया तात सर्ववर्णेषु भारत।। 12.59.47 (60.44)

नास्य यज्ञकृतो देवा ईहन्ते नेतरे जनाः। ततः सर्वेषु वर्णेषु श्रद्धायज्ञो विधीयते।। 48<ref name=":11" />

Meaning: All the Varnas are entitled to take the vow of performing symbolic Yajnas in the depth of their conscious mind. All the devatas and humans desire to be a part of such a Manasika Yajna. For, being endowed with shraddha, these yajnas are extremely pure. And therefore, all Varnas are entitled to perform Shraddha based Yajnas.<ref name=":12" />

'''Mahabharata'''

श्रद्धा वै सात्विकी देवी सूर्यस्य दुहिता द्विज। सावित्री प्रसवित्री च हविर्वाङ्भनसी ततः।।12.270.8<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-270 Adhyaya 270]</ref>

In the '''Mahabharata''', Shraddha is the daughter of दक्ष and wife of धर्म

दक्षस्त्वजायताङ्गुष्ठाद्दक्षिणाद्भगवानृषिः। ब्रह्मणः पृथिवीपाल शान्तात्मा सुमहातपाः।। 1.67.10

वामादजायताङ्गुष्ठाद्भार्या तस्य महात्मनः। तस्यां पञ्चाशतं कन्याः स एवाजनयन्मुनिः।। 1.67.11

ददौ स दश धर्माय सप्तविंशतिमिन्दवे। दिव्येन विधिना राजन्कश्यपाय त्रयोदश।। 1.67.13

नामतो धर्मपत्न्यस्ताः कीर्त्यमाना निबोध मे। कीर्तिर्लक्ष्मीर्धृतिर्मेधा पुष्टिः श्रद्धा क्रिया तथा।। 1.67.14

बुद्धिर्लज्जा मतिश्चैव पत्न्यो धर्मस्य ता दश। द्वाराण्येतानि धर्मस्य विहितानि स्वयंभुवा।। 1.67.15<ref>Mahabharata, Adi Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-01-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-067 Adhyaya 67]</ref>

According to the Bhagavata Purana, Vayu Purana and Vishnu Purana also, Shraddha is the daughter of Daksha, the wife of Dharma and the mother of Shubha and Kama.

'''Bhagavata Purana''' IV. 1. 49-50

श्रद्धा मैत्री दया शान्तिः तुष्टिः पुष्टिः क्रियोन्नतिः । बुद्धिर्मेधा तितिक्षा ह्रीः मूर्तिर्धर्मस्य पत्‍नयः ॥ ४९ ॥

श्रद्धासूत शुभं मैत्री प्रसादं अभयं दया । शान्तिः सुखं मुदं तुष्टिः स्मयं पुष्टिः असूयत ॥ ५० ॥<ref name=":13">Bhagavata Purana, Skandha 4, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Adhyaya 1]</ref>

'''Vayu Purana''' 10. 25, 34

श्रद्धा लक्ष्मीर्धृतिस्तुष्टिः पुष्टिर्मेधा क्रिया तथा । बुद्धिर्लज्जा वपुःशान्तिः सिद्धिः कीर्तिस्त्रयोदशी ॥ २५ ॥

श्रद्धा कामं विजज्ञे वै दर्पो लक्ष्मीसुतः स्मृतः । धृत्यास्तु नियमः पुत्रस्तुष्ट्याः संतोष उच्यते ॥ ३४ ॥<ref>Rampratap Tripathi Shastri (1987), [https://archive.org/details/VayuPuranam/page/n105/mode/2up Vayu Puranam], Allahabad: Hindi Sahitya Sammelan.</ref>

According to the '''Vishnu Purana''', shraddha (श्रद्धा) is a daughter born to Daksha Prajapati by his wife Prasuti. Twentyfour daughters were born to them. Of them, thirteen were the wives of Dharmadeva including shraddha (Wisdom Library - Puranic Encyclopedia). And Dharmadeva had a son named Kama by shraddha. (Part 1, Chapter 7)

प्रसूत्यां च तथा दक्षश्चतस्त्रो विंशतिस्तथा । ससर्ज कन्यास्तासां च सम्यङ्नामानि मे शृणु ॥ १,७.२२ ॥

श्रद्धा लक्ष्मीर्धृतिस्तुष्टिर्मेधा पुष्टिस्तथा क्रिया । बुद्धिर्लज्जा वपुः शान्तिः सिद्धिः कीर्तिस्त्रयोदशी ॥ १,७.२३ ॥

पत्न्यर्थं प्रतिजग्राह धर्मो दाक्षायणीः प्रभुः । ताभ्यः शिष्टयवीयस्य एकादश सुलोचनाः ॥ १,७.२४ ॥

श्रद्धा कामं चला दर्पं नियमं धृतिरात्मजम् । सन्तोषं च तथा तुष्टिर्लोभं पुष्टिरसूयत ॥ १,७.२८ ॥<ref>Vishnu Purana, Amsha 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AD Adhyaya 7]</ref>

The '''Bhagavata Purana (IX. 1. 11, 14)''' also describes Shraddha as wife of Shraddhadeva and mother of ten sons who observed ''payovrata'' for the birth of a daughter. And Ila was born.

ततो मनुः श्राद्धदेवः संज्ञायामास भारत । श्रद्धायां जनयामास दश पुत्रान् स आत्मवान् ॥ ११ ॥

तत्र श्रद्धा मनोः पत्‍नी होतारं समयाचत । दुहित्रर्थं उपागम्य प्रणिपत्य पयोव्रता ॥ १४ ॥<ref name=":14">Bhagavata Purana, Skandha 9, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Adhyaya 1]</ref>

In the 3rd skandha of the '''Bhagavata Purana''' shraddha is described as the daughter born to kardama prajapati by Devahuti. She became the wife of angiras. And they had two sons, Utatthya and brhaspati and four daughters, sinivali, kuhu, raka and anumati. (Puranic Encyclopedia, Purana Index)

श्रद्धां अङ्‌गिरसेऽयच्छत् .... ॥ २२ ॥<ref>Bhagavata Purana, Skandha 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 24]</ref>

Elsewhere also, in the '''Bhagavata Purana''', shraddha is the daughter of कर्दम and wife of अङ्गिरस् or मनु

श्रद्धा त्वङ्‌गिरसः पत्‍नी... ॥ ३४ ॥<ref name=":13" />

तत्र श्रद्धा मनोः पत्‍नी... ॥ १४ ॥<ref name=":14" />

In the '''Markandeya Purana''', Shraddha is the mother of काम

ससर्ज कन्यास्तासाञ्च सम्यङ्नामानि मे शृणु । श्रद्धा लक्ष्मीर्धृतिस्तुष्टिः पुष्टिर्मेधा क्रिया तथा॥५०.२०॥

ख्यात्याद्या जगृहुः कन्या मुनयो मुनिसत्तमाः । श्रद्धा कामं श्रीश्च दर्पं नियमं धृतिरात्मजम्॥५०.२५॥<ref>Markandeya Purana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AC-%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A6 Adhyaya 50]</ref>

According to the '''Shiva Purana''', shraddha is one of the twenty-four daughters of Daksha by Prasuti (one of the three daughters of Svayambhuvamanu and Shatarupa).

स्वायंभुवो मनुस्तत्र पुरुषः परसाधनम् ।। शतरूपाभिधा नारी योगिनी सा तपस्विनी ।। १२ ।।

सा पुनर्मनुना तेन गृहीतातीव शोभना ।। विवाहविधिना ताताऽसृजत्सर्गं समैथुनम् ।। १३ ।।

तस्यां तेन समुत्पन्नस्तनयश्च प्रियव्रतः ।। तथैवोत्तानपादश्च तथा कन्यात्रयं पुनः।।१४।।

आकूतिर्देवहूतिश्च प्रसूतिरिति विश्रुताः ।। आकूतिं रुचये प्रादात्कर्दमाय तु मध्यमाम् ।।१५।।

ददौ प्रसूतिं दक्षायोत्तानपादानुजां सुताः ।। तासां प्रसूतिप्रसवैस्सर्वं व्याप्तं चराचरम् ।।१६।।

देवहूत्यां कर्दमाच्च बह्व्यो जातास्सुता मुने ।। दशाज्जाताश्चतस्रश्च तथा पुत्र्यश्च विंशतिः ।। १८ ।।

धर्माय दत्ता दक्षेण श्रद्धाद्यास्तु त्रयोदश ।। शृणु तासां च नामानि धर्मस्त्रीणां मुनीश्वर।।१९।।

श्रद्धा लक्ष्मीर्धृतिस्तुष्टिः पुष्टिर्मेधा तथा क्रिया ।। वसुःर्बुद्धि लज्जा शांतिः सिद्धिः कीर्तिस्त्रयोदश ।।2.1.16.२०।।<ref>Shiva Purana, Samhita 2 (Rudra Samhita), Khanda 1 (Srshti Khanda), [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A8_(%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE)/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AC Adhyaya 16]</ref>

Meaning: “Dakṣa begot twenty-four daughters. Thirteen daughters shraddha etc. were given to Dharma in marriage by Dakṣa. O lordly sage, listen to the names of Dharma’s wives. Their names are [shraddha (faith),...]. Thereupon the entire universe consisting of three worlds, mobile and immobile was filled (with progeny). Thus according to their own actions and at the bidding of Śiva innumerable famous Brahmins were born out of the various living beings” (2.1.16) - Wisdom library

According to the '''Saura Purana''', shraddha (श्रद्धा) refers to one of the daughters of Daksha and Prasuti.

Manu-svayambhuva and Shatarupa had two daughters Akuti and Prasuti. Prasuti was married to Daksha and they had 24 daughters. Daksha gave thirteen daughters, namely, shraddha and others to Dharma in marriage (Shodhganga: The saurapurana - a critical study).<ref>Snigdha Mohanty (2004), The Saura Purana - A Critical Study ([https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/129627/8/08_chapter%203.pdf Chapter 3]), Orissa: Utkal University.</ref>

=== In Shakta Sampradaya ===
In Shakta philosophy, shraddha is one of the names attributed to Devi, as chanted by the Vedas in their hymns, who were at the time incarnated in their personified forms. (''Devī-bhāgavata-purāṇa'' chapter 5.51-68, called “the narrative of Hayagrīva”.) (Wisdom library)

वेदा ऊचुः |

धीः श्रीः कान्तिः क्षमा शान्तिः श्रद्धा मेधा धृतिः स्मृतिः ॥ ५४ ॥<ref>Devi Bhagavata, Skandha 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AB Adhyaya 5]</ref>

(Wisdom library-https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/shraddha)

(Yogapedia https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/5360/shraddha)

== References ==
<references />

Shraddha (श्रद्धा)

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Kubera (कुबेरः)

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Kubera (Samskrit: कुबेरः) is revered as the devata for wealth and riches. He is the brother of Ravana and the ruler of semi-celestial beings such as Yakhsas, Gandharvas, Kinneras, Kimpurushas among others. His world is called Alakapuri, which lies to the north near Kailasha mountain, which is the abode of Shiva and Parvati.
==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==
Vaishravana or Kubera is known for his wealth and riches among the devatas. Even in the present day, Kubera is worshiped during Deepavali festival time. He is famous for his other aspects as follows, mostly as boons granted to him by his grandfather Brahma.<ref name=":1">Mani, Vettam. (1975). ''[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft Puranic encyclopaedia : A comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature.]'' Delhi:Motilal Banasidass. (Page 434 to 436)</ref>
* '''धनेश्वरः ॥ Dhaneshvara:''' Brahma granted him the rulership over wealth. (Mahabharata Vana Parva)
* '''लोकपालकः ॥ Lokapalaka:''' One of the rulers of the lokas.
* '''दिक्पालकः ॥''' '''Dikpalaka:''' One of the Ashtadikpalakas (eight regions), he is the ruler of the north region.
* '''लङ्काधिपतिः ॥ Lankadhipati:''' Ruler of Lanka, the capital of land of rakshasas, Kubera was defeated and driven out of Lanka by Ravana.
* '''यक्षाधिपः ॥ Yakshadhipa:''' Rulership over the Yaksha ganas and others like Vidhyadharas, Kinneras and Kimpurusharas (different groups of semi-celestial beings) was granted by Brahma as a boon.
<blockquote>तथा यक्षाधिपः श्रीमान्न वै वैश्रवणः प्रभुः। (Maha. Vana. Parv. 65.23)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā yakṣādhipaḥ śrīmānna vai vaiśravaṇaḥ prabhuḥ। (Maha. Vana. Parv. 65.23)</blockquote>Interestingly Yakshadhipati is mentioned by Mahakavi Kalidasa in his Meghadoota kavya.

==Family and Lineage==
Lineage of Kubera:

Mahavishnu ---- Brahma ---- Pulastya ---- Vaishravana (Kubera)
According to Mahabharata Vanaparva (Adhyaya 274), Brahma, the Creator, himself is the grandfather of Kubera and Ravana. Brahma had a manasaputra called Pulastya. To Pulastya was born Vaishravana through his wife Gau. <blockquote>पुलस्त्यो नाम तस्यासीन्मानसो दयितः सुतः। तस्य वैश्रवणो नाम गवि पुत्रोऽभवत्प्रभुः॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.12)</blockquote><blockquote>pulastyō nāma tasyāsīnmānasō dayitaḥ sutaḥ। tasya vaiśravaṇō nāma gavi putrō'bhavatprabhuḥ॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.12)</blockquote>Vaishravana's wife was Bhadra (Adi Parva, Adhyaya 198) and he had two sons Nalakubara and Manigreeva.<ref name=":1" />

==कुबेरस्योत्पत्तिः ॥ Origin of Kubera==
Mahabharata details that Vaishravana, leaving his father Pulastya, was always engaged in seva (सेवा | selfless service) of his grandfather Brahma. Angered by this action, Pulastya created another form of his from half his body, called as Vishravas. <blockquote>स जज्ञे विश्रवा नाम तस्यात्मार्धेन वै द्विजः। प्रतीकाराय सक्रोधस्ततो वैश्रवणस्य वै॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.14)</blockquote><blockquote>sa jajñē viśravā nāma tasyātmārdhēna vai dvijaḥ। pratīkārāya sakrōdhastatō vaiśravaṇasya vai॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.14)</blockquote>Vishravas held a deep resentment for Vaishravana and was always looking for an opportunity to attack him. Brahma was highly pleased with the seva of Vaishravana or Kubera (कुबेरः) and bestowed Amaratva (अमरत्वम्) or immortality apart from all the other boons. <blockquote>पितामहस्तु प्रीतात्मा ददौ वैश्रवणस्य ह। अमरत्वं धनेशत्वं लोकपालत्वमेव च॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.15)</blockquote><blockquote>pitāmahastu prītātmā dadau vaiśravaṇasya ha। amaratvaṁ dhanēśatvaṁ lōkapālatvamēva ca॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.15)</blockquote>Brahma encouraged Vaishravana to seek support of Mahadeva and granted him a son, named Nalakubara. He also gave Vaishravana the title of "Rajaraja" and granted Pushpakavimana to travel anywhere as per his wish via the aerial route.

Vaishravana or Rajaraja Kubera always lived in Lanka, enjoying all the wealth, he engaged people to carry him on their shoulders in a vehicle, hence called Naravahana (नरवाहनः).

Kubera is called Pingalaksha (पिङ्गलाक्षः) as he looked at Parvati, who was seated on the left thigh of Shiva, with jealousy. She cursed him to become blind in one eye. Later she turned that eye of Kubera into yellow color, thus he came to be called as Ekapingala.<ref name=":1" />

Puranic Encyclopedia mentions that Pulastya wedded Manini, also called Havirbhu, and a son called Vishravas was born to them. Vishravas married Ilabila, called as Daivavarnini, the daughter of Bharadvaja maharshi.<ref name=":1" />

== रावणस्योत्पत्तिः ॥ Origin of Ravana ==
Vaishravana who was granted many boons by his grandfather, Brahma, was always viewed with resentment and anger by his father's form Vishravas (विश्रवस्). He made many attempts to please him. To please his father Vishravas, he engaged the sevas (सेवा | selfless service) of three rakshasis (परिचारिकाः) named Pushpotkata (पुष्पोत्कटा), Malini (मालिनी) and Raaka (राका) well versed in song and dance and who served him competitively to gain his good graces. Pleased with their seva, Vishravas granted each of them sons according to their wish, who are as mighty with immense strength equal to that of lokapalakas.
<blockquote>पुष्पोत्कटायां जज्ञाते द्वौ पुत्रौ राक्षसेश्वरौ। कुम्भकर्णदशग्रीवौ बलेनाप्रतिमौ भुवि॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.7)</blockquote><blockquote>puṣpōtkaṭāyāṁ jajñātē dvau putrau rākṣasēśvarau। kumbhakarṇadaśagrīvau balēnāpratimau bhuvi॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.7)</blockquote><blockquote>मालिनी जनयामास पुत्रमेकं विभीषणम्। राकायां मिथुनं जज्ञे खरः शूर्पणखा तथा॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.8) </blockquote><blockquote>mālinī janayāmāsa putramēkaṁ vibhīṣaṇam। rākāyāṁ mithunaṁ jajñē kharaḥ śūrpaṇakhā tathā॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.8)</blockquote>Ravana and Kumbhakarna of Pushpotkata who were mighty rakshasas. Malini gave birth to one son named Vibhishana. Raaka gave birth to a male child named Khara and a female child named Surpanakha.

Pushpotkata was also called as Kaikasi.

==लङ्काधिपतिः ॥ Lankadhipati==
Once when Kubera, in his pomp and splendour was in the company of Vishravas. At that time Ravana and others were moved by jealousy over his wealth and grandeur. In their heart of hearts they all decided to do severe tapas (penance) to please Brahma. Ravana did penance for thousand years standing on one foot, living only on air and in deep meditation with Panchaagnis around him. Kumbhakarna similarly limited his food and slept only on the ground. Vibhishana sustained himself only on dry leaves during his penance. Clever and generous hearted Vibhishana also continued his penance for years along with his brothers. Khara and Surpanakha engaged themselves in protecting and serving their brothers who were doing penance. After a thousand years of penance, Ravana cut off one of his ten heads and offered it into Agni as ahuti.

=== ब्रह्मवरदानम् ॥ Brahma's Boons ===
Brahmadeva highly pleased with with their tapas asked them to wish for any boons other than Amaratva (immortality). Brahma granted Ravana that he can take any form as per his wish and will be victorious in wars with his enemies. It is then that Ravana makes his extraordinary request that he should never be defeated by Gandharvas, devatas, asuras, yakshas, nagas, kinnaras, bhutas which is granted by Brahma. Kumbhakarna, whose mind was controlled by tamas, asked to be granted sleep for a long time. Vibhishana requested that inspite of big distress befalling on him, he should remain undisturbed or a dharmic. Also he asked for the Brahmastra to be granted to him, with the knowledge of application (prahara) and retraction (upasamhara). Pleased Brahma along with these two boons grants Amaratva (immortality) to Vibhishana.
<blockquote>राक्षसस्तु वरं लब्ध्वा दशग्रीवो विशाम्पते। लङ्कायाश्च्यावयामास युधि जित्वा धनेश्वरम्॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.32) </blockquote><blockquote>rākṣasastu varaṁ labdhvā daśagrīvō viśāmpatē। laṅkāyāścyāvayāmāsa yudhi jitvā dhanēśvaram॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.32)</blockquote><blockquote>हित्वा स भगवाँल्लङ्कामाविशद्गन्धमादनम्। गन्धर्वयक्षानुगतो रक्षःकिम्पुरुषैः सह॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.33)</blockquote><blockquote>hitvā sa bhagavām̐llaṅkāmāviśadgandhamādanam। gandharvayakṣānugatō rakṣaḥkimpuruṣaiḥ saha॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.33)</blockquote>Ravana after having obtained the mighty boons, from Brahma which made him invincible, came to Lanka and defeated Dhaneshvara (Kubera) in a war against him. Having no choice Kubera had to leave Lanka to live on Gandhamadhana mountain along with Gandharvas, Yakhsas, Rakshasas and Kimpurushas.

=== रावणं शशाप ॥ Curse on Ravana ===
<blockquote>विमानं पुष्पकं तस्य जहाराक्रम्य रावणः। शशाप तं वैश्रवणो न त्वामेतद्वहिष्यति॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.34)</blockquote><blockquote>vimānaṁ puṣpakaṁ tasya jahārākramya rāvaṇaḥ। śaśāpa taṁ vaiśravaṇō na tvāmētadvahiṣyati॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.34)</blockquote>Ravana forcefully took away Kubera's Pushpaka vimana which deeply angered Kubera. Kubera curses Ravana saying "because of this disrespectful behaviour towards your elder brother, Pushpaka will not be of any use to you but will carry the person who kills you in a war." Thus was laid the foundation of elimination of Ravana for his misdeeds even prior to his abducting Sita.

== विराधस्य वृत्तान्तम्॥ Viradha's Story ==
Valmiki Ramayana describes the important episode of Viradha, a demon killed by ShriRama and Lakshmana, in the [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|[[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]]]. Viradha takes away Sitadevi with his huge arms, seeing thus, Rama and Lakshmana cut his arms. Later he carries Rama and Lakshmana far away and eventually gets killed by them. Viradha, desirous to die in the hands of ShriRama briefly describes who he is and how he came to live in the Dandakaaranya. This episode occurs in Adhyatma Ramayana, Brahmanda Purana (Adhyaya 61) and Skanda Purana which describes it in detail.

Once Tumburu, a Gandharva, interested in the apsara named Rambha, neglected his services to Kubera and invited his wrath. Kubera angrily cursed him to become a rakshasa named Viradha. He later told him that when Rama kills him in a fight, he would regain his previous celestial body and then go to swarga.<ref>Valmiki Ramayana ([https://valmikiramayan.net/utf8/aranya/sarga4/aranya_4_frame.htm Aranya Kanda Sarga 4])</ref><blockquote>तुंबुरुः नाम गन्धर्वः शप्तो वैश्रवणेन हि || ३-४-१६ </blockquote><blockquote>tuṁburuḥ nāma gandharvaḥ śaptō vaiśravaṇēna hi || 3-4-16</blockquote><blockquote>प्रसाद्यमानः च मया सोऽब्रवीत् माम् महायशाः | यदा दाशरथी रमः त्वाम् वधिष्यति संयुगे || ३-४-१७</blockquote><blockquote>prasādyamānaḥ ca mayā sō'bravīt mām mahāyaśāḥ | yadā dāśarathī ramaḥ tvām vadhiṣyati saṁyugē || 3-4-17</blockquote><blockquote>तदा प्रकृतिम् आपन्नो भवान् स्वर्गम् गमिष्यति |अनुपस्थीयमानो माम् स क्रुद्धो व्याजहार ह || ३-४-१८</blockquote><blockquote>tadā prakr̥tim āpannō bhavān svargam gamiṣyati |anupasthīyamānō mām sa kruddhō vyājahāra ha || 3-4-18</blockquote><blockquote>इति वैश्रवणो राजा रंभ आसक्तम् उवाच ह | तव प्रसादान् मुक्तो अहम् अभिशापात् सु दारुणात् || ३-४-१९ (Valm. Rama. Aran. 4.3.16-19)</blockquote><blockquote>iti vaiśravaṇō rājā raṁbha āsaktam uvāca ha | tava prasādān muktō aham abhiśāpāt su dāruṇāt || 3-4-19</blockquote>Courtesy: Samskrit Shlokas of Mahabharata from Rashtriya Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Site.<ref>Mahabharata Project - [http://www.rsvidyapeetha.ac.in/mahabharatha/menu.html Main Page]</ref>
==References==
[[Category:Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Upakhyanas]]
<references />

Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा)

2021-01-15T13:44:23Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (Samskrit : भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा) or Bharat's Traditional Literary series of works include all major components of Bharatiya texts coming from a vast repository of Samskrit literature preserved through oral tradition as well as those in the form of manuscripts and other written formats. Samskrit literature can be classified under two headings viz., '''Vedas and''' '''Vaidika Sahitya''' consisting of ancient literature and '''Laukika Sahitya''' including the more recent classical samskrit works. The Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya is a collection of the authoritative texts of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]], while Laukika Sahitya embodies the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref>
==Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya ==
[[File:Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara.jpg|650x650px|
Classification of Samskrit Texts
|border|right]]
A whole body of texts are included under this heading:<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":2">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref>
#[[Shruti (श्रुतिः)|Shrutis]] also called Amnaya (आम्नाय) and Trayi (त्रयी) (Include [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]], Vedabhashyas, [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]], and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] example : Rigveda, Yajus samhita, Taittriya Brahmana, Brhdaranyaka, Chandogya Upanishad)
#Smritis (Include [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Vaidika Vangmaya]] such as [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]], Smritis or Dharmashastras, Puranas, Itihasa which are exclusive of the core Vaidika texts)
#Agamas (Example : Shaiva and Vaishnava Agamas)
#Darsanas (Astika Darshanas, example : [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]], Nyaya darshana)<ref name=":42222" />
Although the word Smrti is used in general to denote the non-Shruti literature, it is often used to refer to the Dharmashastras, which describe the code of conduct for everyone.<ref name=":42222" /> In the scope of the present project, word Smrti is used to represent the whole of the non-Shruti literature as well as specifically refer to Dharmashastras (Smrti granthas like Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti).

==Laukika Sahitya==
The classical literary writings include different types of writings classified variously :<ref name=":42222" />
#Mahakavyas (Poetry, example : Kalidasa Mahakavi's Raghuvamsha)
#Rupakas or Natakas (Drama, example : Mricchakatika, Pratimanataka)
#Alankara shastragranthas (Example : Kavyaprakasha, Dhvanyaloka)
#Gadya kavyas (Prose, example : Kadambari)
#Charitraka kavyas (Historical presentations, example : Rajatarangini)
#Champu kavyas (Mix of prose and poetry, example : Champu Ramayana)
#Katha kavyas (Stories, example : Brhatkatha, Kathasaritsagara)
#Nitikavyas (Didactic poetry, example : Panchatantra and Hitopadesha)
In Dharmawiki project, articles pertaining to the Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya are discussed while information pertaining to Laukika Sahitya is beyond the scope of this project (except for a few references) at present. A flowchart of the classification of Vaidika and Laukika Sahitya has been attempted with the sources of the material as given in the article.
==The Shrutis==
{{Main|Shruti_(श्रुतिः)}}The Vaidika texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, hence preserved over thousands of years. There are two classifications of Hindu texts: ''Shruti'' – that which is heard, and ''Smriti'' – that which is remembered. The supremacy of Vedas has been emphasized in Manusmrti as follows<blockquote>बिभर्ति सर्वभूतानि वेदशास्त्रं सनातनम् । तस्मादेतत्परं मन्ये यज्जन्तोरस्य साधनम् । । १२.९९ (Manu. Smrt. 12.99)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>bibharti sarvabhūtāni vedaśāstraṃ sanātanam । tasmādetatparaṃ manye yajjantorasya sādhanam । । 12.99 । ।</blockquote>Meaning: The eternal Veda shastra upholds or protects all beings (by being their flawless guideline). Those endeavoring for the welfare of all beings, regard Vedas as their supreme authoritative instrument in achieving it.

The Vedas are the foundational authority for the people who follow Sanatana Dharma and these four vedas are classified as Shruti texts.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><ref name=":22" />

[[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The Four Vedas]] are:
#[[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)]]
#[[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)]]
#[[Samaveda (सामवेदः)]]
#[[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)]]
The Vedas (include Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishads for each Veda) called Shrutis, are passed on to generations of students and are memorized by hearing the mantras from the guru (guru-shishya parampara). Rishis have received the Vedas through revelation and hence Vedas are considered to be ''[[Apauruseya|apauruṣeya]]'', or entirely superhuman, without any author.

[[Veda Vargeekarana (वेदवर्गीकरणम्)|Veda Vargeekarana]] or classification of the Vedas is extensive, for example Rig veda is divided in Astaka and Mandala Kramas. The Yajur Veda is divided into two parts - The Shukla and the Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittirya shaka is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya is a later revelation to sage [[Yagnyavalkya|Yajnavalkya]] from Surya. The Rig-Veda is divided into twenty one shakas, the Yajur Veda into one hundred and nine shakas, the Sama Veda into one thousand shakas and the Atharva Veda into fifty shakas. In all, the Veda is thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty shakas or recensions.<ref name=":022" />

Each Veda has been sub-classified in textual content again into four major text types<ref name=":022" />:
#The [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]] that comprise of mantras and benedictions.
#The [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]] that contain explanation of Mantras and rituals
#The [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] that are mystical texts which give philosophical interpretation of the rituals. These are intended for the Vanaprasthas or hermits, who prepare themselves for taking Sanyasa
#The [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] that discuss meditation, philosophy and adhyatmik knowledge.
The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda (कर्म खण्ड), Upasana-Kanda (उपासना खण्ड) and Jnana-Kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड). The Karma-Kanda or ritualistic section deals with various yajnas and associated kriyas. The Upasana-Kanda or worship-section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or knowledge-section deals with the knowledge of Brahman. The [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]] and the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]] constitute Karma-Kanda; the [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] Upasana-Kanda; and the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] Jnana-Kanda.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022" />

'''Main Components of Shrutis'''
====The Samhitas ====
{{Main|Samhita (संहिता)}}
Samhitas are primarily a collection of the mantras, Riks in Rigveda, Yajus of Yajurveda, Samans of the Samaveda and those of Atharvaveda. The '''Rig-Veda Samhita''' is the oldest sacred literary text of the Hindus. The '''Yajur-Veda Samhita''' is mostly in prose and explaining the procedures of the yajnas and yagas, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras. The '''Sama-Veda Samhita,''' shortest of all vedas, is mostly borrowed from Rig-Vedic Samhita sung with melody especially during the Soma yajnas. the '''Atharva-Veda Samhita''' is meant to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed during the yajnas. Atharvaveda contains mantras on many subjects such as socio-political aspects, medicine, agriculture etc along with philosophical thoughts.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":032222">Introduction to Samhitas in [http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/ Vedic Heritage Portal]</ref>

====The Brahmanas ====
{{Main|Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)}}
Brahmanas are injunctions or vidhis for the performance of shrauta yajnas.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref> Important with respect to the procedural aspects of Vaidika yajnas they explain the meaning and gudartha (hidden meanings) of the Samhita parts. They are that portion of the Vedas which apart from stating the vidhis, explain their origin and detailed explanation with illustrations in the form of legends and anecdotes, thus appear distinct from the "mantra" portions of the Samhitas.<ref name=":1">Sharma, Ram Murthy. (1987 2nd edition) ''Vaidik Sahitya ka Itihas'' Delhi : Eastern Book Linkers</ref>

While not many variations in the names and number of Brahmanas are seen for Rigveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, however, Samaveda associated with the highest number of Brahmanas, is opined to have some differences in number and names of Brahmanas, by scholars.

According to Swami Sivananda, six brahmanas : the Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa, the Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]].<ref name=":022" />

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy in Sanskruta Sahitya Charitra nine Brahmanas are mentioned Tandya, Shadvimsha, Samavidhana, Arsheya, Devataradhya, Upanishad, Samhitopanishad, Vamsha, and Jaiminiya Brahmanas.<ref name=":42222" />

According to Shri. Shriram Adhikari (Vedic Heritage Portal), eight Brahmanas for Samaveda are available as given in the above list except that he lists Chandogya-Upanishad brahmana and instead of Upanishad brahmana and Jaiminiya brahmana is missing.<ref name=":22222">Adhikari, Shriram Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_16.pdf Samaved ka parichay evam vaisishtya]'' from Vedic Heritage Portal</ref> Dr Shashi Tiwari lists two Brahmanas in addition to the 9 listed by Dr. Gopal Reddy, as JaiminiyaArsheya Brahmana and Jaiminiyopanishad Brahmana making it a total of 11 Brahmanas available for Samaveda.<ref>Dr. Shashi Tiwari, Sanskrit Department, Delhi University in the ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/# Introduction of Brahmanas]'' (Vedic Heritage Portal)</ref>
==== The Aranyakas ====
{{Main|Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)}}
Each of the Vedas are associated with an Aranyaka except Atharvaveda. Usually Aranyakas are present as the concluding part of the Brahmanas, however, due to the non-availability of Aranyakas for Atharvaveda, Upanishads stand as independent works in this veda. Aranyakas and Upanishads are like the ''parishistas'' (appendices) to the Brahmanas.

Aranyakas are said to be those texts to be studied by people in their vanaprastha ashrama, living a life of seclusion in the forests. Subject material of Aranyakas consists of the partly modified versions of yajnas and vratas apart from the adhyatmik matters. These tattvas and theosophical matters are extensively elaborated in the Upanishads. Karma and Jnana margas appear to be balanced in the Aranyakas. Upasana (meditation), Brahmavidya along with the Pranavidya (Knowledge of Breath), details of origin of sristi, meditation on Pranava are described elaborately so that the residents of the forest can practice them in the quiet solitude of the forests. The number of Aranyakas was once said to be 130, but now many are lost.<ref name=":42222" /><ref>Dr. Shashi Tiwari, Sanskrit Department, Delhi University on ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/aranyakas/ Introduction to Aranyakas]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal</ref>

The different brahmanas and Aranyakas associated with different veda shakas are listed in the table below.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022" /><ref name=":0">Raghunathacharya, S. B. (1985) ''Arshavijnana Sarvasvamu, Volume 2 : Brahmanalu (Telugu)'' Tirupati : Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Brahmanas and Aranyakas Available in Present Days<ref name=":0" />
! rowspan="2" |RigVeda
! colspan="2" |Yajurveda
! rowspan="2" |Samaveda
! rowspan="2" |Adharvaveda
|-
|'''Krishna'''
|'''Shukla'''
|-
|
# ऐतरेय ॥ Aitereya Brahmana
# कौषीतकी ॥ Kaushitaki or Sankhyayana (शाङ्खायन) Brahmana<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":22" />
|
# तैत्तिरीय ॥Taittriya Brahmana
# मैत्रायणी ॥ Maitrayani Brahmana<ref name=":022" />
|
# माध्यन्दिन-शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Madhyandina Shatapatabrahmana
# काण्व-शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Kanva Shatapatabrahmana
|
# जैमिनीय॥ Jaiminiya(Talavakara तलवकार)
# ताण्ड्य ॥Tandya (Panchavimsha, Mahabrahmana or Praudha)
# छान्दोग्य ॥ Chandogya (Mantra)
# सामविधान॥ Samavidhana
# देवताध्याय॥ Devataradhaya
# वंशब्राह्मणम् ॥ Vamsha
# संहितोपनिषद्॥ Samhitopanishad
|
# गोपथब्राह्मणम् ॥ Gopatha Brahmana
|-
|
# ऐतरेय ॥ Aiterya Aranyanka
# शाङ्खायन ॥Sankhyayana Aranyaka<ref name=":42222" />
|
# तैत्तिरीय ॥Taittriya Aranyaka
# मैत्रायणी ॥ Maitrayani Aranyaka
|
# माध्यन्दिन-बृहदारण्यकम् ॥ Madhyandina Brhadaranyaka
# काण्व-बृहदारण्यकम् ॥ Kanva Brhadaranyaka
|
# जैमिनीय॥Jaiminiya (Talavakara) Aranyaka
# छान्दोग्य ॥ Chandogya Aranyaka<ref name=":42222" />
|None available
|}

====The Upanishads====
{{Main|Upanishads (उपनिषदः)}}The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Aranyakas, and thus last portions of the Vedas, the mukhya upanishads being essentially difficult to be separated from their Aranyakas. The teaching based on them is called [[Vedanta]]. For example, Aiteraya Upanishad is the parishista of Aiteraya Brahmana of Rigveda.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":1" />

Etymologically the name Upanishad has been variously interpreted. The form of teaching was that of the dialogues transmitted orally, hence they are also included in Shrutis. Significant feature is that no authorship has been recorded and Upanishads are regarded as revelations to seers. Upanishads have been regarded as one among the Prasthana Trayi, the other two included are Brahmasutras and Bhavagad Gita.

The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishads]], and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name="ptraju22">Poola, Tirupati Raju (1985), ''Structural Depths of Bharat's Thought.'' USA: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36</ref> The Upanishads are the very foundation of the siddhantas and tattvas of Sanatana Dharma applicable to man in every walk of life philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of all the texts included in Vaidika Vangmaya, Upanishads have been widely studied by many people of the world, and in the present day the theosophical ideas and vidyas that have been discussed in the Upanishads have made a great impression on mankind. Thus Upanishads throw light on Brahmavidya, aid in destroying the Avidya of Mumukshus (persons interested in attaining Moksha) causing attainment of Moksha or Brahmaloka by removing the three kinds of Dukha (pain).<ref name=":42222" />

There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recensions, i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas, the [[Rigveda|Rig-Veda]] the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]], the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]] and the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]].<ref name=":022" />

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads from the Vedantic point of view. The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]]'' and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. Muktikopanishad and Narayanopanishad lists 108 Upanishads and of them Dasa-Upanishads are <blockquote>ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरः । ऐतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं तथा ॥ īśa-kēna-kaṭha-praśna-muṇḍa-māṇḍūkya-tittiraḥ । ēētarēyaṁ ca chāndōgyaṁ br̥hadāraṇyakaṁ tathā ॥</blockquote>
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
*[[Isavasyopanishad]]
*[[Kenopanishad]]
*[[Kathopanishad]]
*[[Prasnopanishad]]
*[[Mundakopanishad]]
*[[Mandukyopanishad]]
*[[Taittriya Upanishad]]
*[[Aitareya Upanishad]]
*[[Chandogya Upanishad]]
*[[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] }}
Besides these Shvetashvatara, Kaushitaki and Maitrayaniya Upanishads are also listed as older ones. Shri Adi Shankaracharya has given bhashyam (commentary) for these ten principal Upanishads and has mentioned about Kaushitaki and Shvetasvatara Upanishads in his writings, though he did not write the bhasyam for these two Upanishads. These 13 Upanishads are based on the ancient vedic sources and advocate the tattava of Vedanta. The many other Upanishads that are currently available have arisen based on the particular sampradayas, thus we find mainly Shaiva, Vaishnava, Yoga and Shakteya Upanishads. The older Upanishads describe the places starting from Kuru, Panchala upto Videha indicating their place of origin. It is to be noted that in place of the many Vaidika devatas we find mention more of Brahman or Parabrahman (nirakara), showing the unity of divinity. Ancient (prachina) Upanishads mention Prkruti, Purusha and Brahma while the more recent (arvachina) Upanishads mention the deities Vishnu or Shiva and so forth.<ref name=":42222" />

==The Smrtis==
{{Main|Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)}}The word Smrti is used in two senses. In a broad sense, is applied to all ancient non-Vedic works such as Panini's grammar, to the Shrauta, Grhya and dharma sutras, to Mahabharata, to Manu, Yajnavalkya and others. In a narrow sense, smrti and dharmashastras are synonyms as quoted by Manu (2.10). The word Smrti, however, occurs in Taittriya Aranyaka (1.2).<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1 Anuvaka 2])</ref> with respect to Dharma, is also referred by Gautama (Dharmasutras 1.2) and Vasishta (Dharmasutras 1.4) who cite Smrtis as the sources of dharma.<ref name=":5" />

Smrti literature includes that 'which is remembered', covering all the texts other than the Vedas.<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":02222" /> According to Dr. Gopal Reddy they broadly include the following<ref name=":42222" />
* '''Shad Vedangas''' (Shiksha, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Kalpa, Jyotisha)
* '''Veda-Upangas''' (Puranas, Itihasa, Dharmashastras or Smrti granthas, Mimamsa and Nyaya shastras). Some scholars consider all the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]] as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref>
* '''Upavedas''' (Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda, Arthashastra)
* '''Nitishastra''' (Dandaniti shastra)
A clear cut definition is not given as what all constitute the Smrti texts. There is a difference in the way the texts are classified by different scholars. Pratisakhyas, Anukramanikas and the more recent Nibandhas are also included under this broad category of Smrtis.

===The Shad Vedangas===
{{Main|Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)}}Vedangas are six topics, the study of which are required for the complete understanding of the Vedas. Each of these subjects are given by different seers, developed for the understanding of a student. The Six Angas are as follows :
#[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]] is a knowledge of phonetics. Shiksha deals with pronunciation and accent. The text of the Vedas are arranged in various forms or Pathas (पाठ-s). The Padapatha (पदपाठः) gives each word its separate form. The Kramapatha (क्रमपाठः) connects the word in pairs.<ref name=":022" /> Pratisakhyas are the angas of Shiksha granthas.
#[[Chandas (छन्दस्)|Chandas]] is the knowledge of meters. This auxiliary discipline lays its focus on the metrical construction of vedic mantras and poetic meters, including those based on the number of syllables per mantra and those based on the duration of pronunciation of syllables in a mantra.
#[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]] is the knowledge of construction of words or grammar. This auxiliary discipline has focused on the rules of grammar and siddhiprakriya (सिद्धिप्रक्रिया | the process of deriving a word), so as to establish the exact form of words and sentences to properly express ideas.
#[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]] gives the vyutpatti-artha (व्युत्पत्ति-अर्थ | etymology), explaining words, particularly those which are archaic and have a different ancient vedic usage with uncommon meaning. This auxiliary discipline has focused on developing a [[Nighantu]] which is a dictionary that has a collection of vedic usages. These words are analysed to establish the proper meaning of the words according to the context used in vedas.
#[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotish]] deals with astronomy and astrology. It deals with the movements of the heavenly bodies, planets, etc., and their influence in human affairs.<ref name=":022" /> This auxiliary Vedic discipline focused on time keeping.
#[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]] are the texts that deal with the methods of [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajna]] and other rituals composed in Sutra format. This field focused on standardizing procedures for Vedic Shrauta rituals, Smarta rituals associated with [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]] - major life events such as birth, wedding and death in family, as well as discussing [[Dharma (धर्मः)|dharmas]] laid down for the personal conduct and proper duties of an individual in different stages of his life.Sutras under this category include :
##Shrauta Sutras describe the procedures of [[Shrauta Yajnas (श्रौतयज्ञाः)|Shrauta yajnas]] as per the veda shaka. Example : Haviryajnas, Somayajnas
##Grhya Sutras describe the procedures of Grhya yajnas pertaining to veda shakas. Example : Pakayajnas, [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|Panchamahayajnas]]
##Dharma Sutras describe the rules pertaining to the [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|Varna-Ashrama Dharmas]] (Smarta Karmas). Example : Baudhayana Dharmasutras, Apastamba Dharmasutras
##Sulba Sutras describe the mathematical and geometrical aspects of the construction of the vedic altars. Example : Baudhayana and Apastamba Sulbasutras<ref name=":22" />
===The Upavedas===
{{Main|Upavedas (उपवेदाः)}}According to Vishnupurana there are four Upa-Vedas or subsidiary Vedas, viz., the [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], the [[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)|Dhanurveda]], the [[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)|Gandharva Veda]] and the [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Artha Shastra]] forming auxiliaries to the four Vedas<ref name=":3">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref>. Some scholars consider Sthapatya Veda as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":2" />. Sthapatya Veda or Shilpa Veda deals with the science of architectural engineering.

The Upavedas supplement the Vedas with more specific applications of Vedic teachings into the cultural field.
{| class="wikitable"
!S. No.
!Upaveda Name
!Concerned with
!Associated with Veda
|-
|1
|Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)
|Shastra dealing with health and prevention of diseases
|Rig Veda
|-
|2
|Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)
|Shastra dealing with archery, warfare
|Yajurveda
|-
|3
|Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)
|Music and dance
|Sama Veda
|-
|4
|Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)
|Public administration, governance, economy and polity
|Atharvaveda
|}
===The Dharmashastras or Smrti Granthas===
In a more specific sense Smrtis are ancient law-codes dealing with the sanatana [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|Varnashrama Dharmas]] given by seers. They supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. The Smriti Shastra is based on the Sruti and stands next in authority to the Sruti. It explains and develops Dharma. Manusmrti explains that Shrutis comprise the Vedas, while Smrtis include the Dharmashastras.<ref name=":5" /> <blockquote>श्रुतिस्तु वेदो विज्ञेयो धर्मशास्त्रं तु वै स्मृतिः । śrutistu vedo vijñeyo dharmaśāstraṁ tu vai smr̥tiḥ । (Manu. Smrt. 2.10)<ref>Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>It lays down the laws which regulate (Hindu) national, social, family and individual obligations. The laws for regulating society from time to time are codified in the Smritis. The Smritis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide the individuals and communities in their daily conduct and to regulate their manners and customs. They contain detailed instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes of men regarding their duties in life. The Hindu learns how one has to spend his whole life from these Smritis. The duties of people in different Varnashramas and all ceremonies are clearly given in these books<ref name=":022" /><ref>R. Suresha, (2009) Ph. D Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/132380/8/08_chapter%202.pdf Learning systems in Ancient Sanskrit - A Critical Study.]'' Mangalore University</ref>.

The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":022" /><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Number of Smritis ====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti]], Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.
* Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
* Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
* Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
* Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
* Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, howevever, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5" /> <blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}
According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji, <ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part15/chap2.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

According to Swami Sivananda<ref name=":022" />, the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":022" />
=== The Nitishastra (Dandaniti) ===
In Mahabharata's Shantiparva we find the mention of Dandaniti shastra given to the world by Brahma, which is a text said to comprise of 100,000 adhyayas expounding the purusharthas and achieving them.
<blockquote> दण्डनीत्यां प्रणीतायां सर्वे सिद्ध्यन्त्युपक्रमाः। कौन्तेय सर्वभूतानां तत्र मे नास्ति संशयः॥ 1 (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.29)</blockquote><blockquote>daṇḍanītyāṁ praṇītāyāṁ sarve siddhyantyupakramāḥ। kaunteya sarvabhūtānāṁ tatra me nāsti saṁśayaḥ॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.29)</blockquote><blockquote>दण्डश्चेन्न भवेल्लोके विनश्येयुरिमाः प्रजाः। जले मत्स्यानिवाभक्ष्यन्दुर्बलान्बलवत्तराः॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.30)</blockquote><blockquote>daṇḍaścenna bhavelloke vinaśyeyurimāḥ prajāḥ। jale matsyānivābhakṣyandurbalānbalavattarāḥ॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.30)</blockquote><blockquote>चातुर्वर्ण्यप्रमोदाय सुनीतिनयनाय च। दण्डो विधात्रा विहितो धर्मार्थौ भुवि रक्षितुम्॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.35)</blockquote><blockquote>cāturvarṇyapramodāya sunītinayanāya ca। daṇḍo vidhātrā vihito dharmārthau bhuvi rakṣitum॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.35)</blockquote>Summary: In Vaisampayana's instruction of rajaniti to Arjuna, he stresses that with the appropriate application of Dandaniti (दण्डनीतिः) all the beings of all worlds will be alert to conduct themselves appropriately. If not so, all the creatures will perish and just like the big fish eats the small fish, a stronger person will harm a weaker person. Brahma created this system for the happiness of the people of the four varnas and that everyone follows niti for the protection of both dharma and artha (money).<ref>Pt. Ramnarayandatt Shastri, ''[https://archive.org/stream/Mahabharata04SanskritHindiPanditRamnarayanGitaPress/Mahabharata05_Sanskrit-hindi_panditRamnarayan_gitaPress#page/n53/mode/1up Mahabharata by Maharshi Vedavyasa , Volume 5, Shanti Parva.]'' Gorakhpur : Gita Press</ref>

Later on, Shiva, condensed them into a text called "Vaisalaksha (वैशालाक्ष)" with 10,000 adhyayas. Indra further condensed this shastra to a comprehensive text called "Bahudantakashastra (बाहुदन्तक-शास्त्रम्). Sukracharya further condensed it to a 1000 adhyayas and named the text as "Aushanasaniti (औशनसनीतिः) or Shukraniti (शुक्रनीतिः). This story in Mahabharata indicates that the base text is the same Dandanitishastra grantha, which underwent changes over a time period. Dandaniti shastra describes Arthashastra, Rajaniti, Social aspects, Shilpashastra, and even Rasayana shastra.<ref name=":42222" />

===The Puranas ===
{{Main|Puranas (पुराणानि)}}The Puranas as a class of literature existed from very ancient times. For example, Taittriya Aranyaka (2.10) speaks of 'Brahmanas, Itihasas, Puranas and Narasamshi gathas. Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya Upanishad, Gautama dharmasutras, Skandapurana, Bhagavata purana and other texts also refer to the Puranas. Mahabharata (Vana. Parv. 191.6) speaks of the Purana given by Vayu (Vayupurana).<ref name=":5" />
The Puranas were written to bring the the teachings of the Vedas closer to the common man. They contain the essence of the Vedas.<blockquote>सर्व वेदार्थ साराणि पुराणानि । sarva vēdārtha sārāṇi purāṇāni । (Nara. Pura. 1.9.100)</blockquote>The Puranas have five characteristics (Pancha-Lakshana) viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings and of Manvantaras.

All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Sammitas (सुहृत्-सम्मित) or Mitra-sammita (मित्र-सम्मित). Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.

The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to deities and celestial beings, through concrete examples, stories, legends, lives of rishis, rajas, maharajas and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events. The seers made use of these to illustrate the eternal principles of religion. The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand deep philosophy and who could not study the Vedas.

The Darshanas propound complex and abstract thoughts which cannot be easily grasped. They are meant only for the learned few. Through Puranas, essential teachings are taught in a very easy and interesting way. Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain the history of remote times. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting to read and are full of information of all kinds.<ref name=":022" /> Early commentators namely, Apararka, Ballalasena and Hemadri profusely quote the Puranas as the sources of dharma. Topics like [[Shraddha (श्राद्धम्)|Shraddha]], Vratas, danas, shanti karmas, tirthas, rajadharmas are predominantly seen in the Matsya Purana. So also in the Vishnupurana, [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varnashramadharmas]], [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|panchamahayajnas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], nitya and naimittika karmas are extensively described.<ref name=":5" />

====The Eighteen Mahapuranas ====
There are eighteen MahaPuranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. Vishnupurana (3.6.20 - 24) details the 18 Mahapuranas as follows<ref name=":3" />:{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Brahma Purana]]
* [[Padma Purana]]
* [[Vishnu Purana]]
* [[Siva Purana]]
* [[Bhagavata Purana]]
* [[Narada Purana]]
* [[Markandeya Purana]]
* [[Agni Purana]]
* [[Bhavishya Purana]]
* [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]
* [[Linga Purana]]
* [[Varaha Purana]]
* [[Skanda Purana]]
* [[Vamana Purana]]
* [[Kurma Purana]]
* [[Matsya Purana]]
* [[Garuda (Suparna) Purana]]
* [[Brahmanda Purana]]
}}Padmapurana and Matsyapurana (Adhyaya 53<ref>Matsya Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 53])</ref>) mentions about the division of Sattvic Puranas (six), in praise of Vishnu (mokshaprada) are Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma and Varaha puranas. Six, in praise of Sarasvati and Brahma (svargaprada) are Rajasic, they include Brahma, Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Vamana. Six in praise of Shiva are Tamasic and they include Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Shiva, Skanda, Agni puranas.

==== Upapuranas ====
The Upa-puranas are similar in content to the 18 mahapuranas and they are written by many different seers.
: आद्यं सनत्कुमारोक्तं नारसिंहमथापरम् ॥ १,२२३.१७ ॥ तृतीयं स्कान्दमुद्दिष्टं कुमारेण तु भाषितम् । चतुर्थं शिवधर्माख्यं स्यान्नन्दीश्वरभाषितम् ॥ १,२२३.१८ ॥ दुर्वाससोक्तमाश्चर्यं नारदोक्तमतः परम् । कापिलं वामनञ्चैव तथैवोशनसेरितम् ॥ १,२२३.१९ ॥ ब्रह्माण्डं वारुणञ्चाथ कालिकाह्वयमेव च । माहेश्वरं तथा साम्बमेवं सर्वार्थसञ्चयम् । पराशरोक्तमपरं मारीचं भार्गवाह्वयम् ॥ १,२२३.२० ॥ पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रञ्च वेदास्त्वङ्गानि यन्मुने । (Garu. Pura. 1.223.17-20)<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
:ādyaṁ sanatkumārōktaṁ nārasiṁhamathāparam ॥ 1,223.17 ॥ tr̥tīyaṁ skāndamuddiṣṭaṁ kumārēṇa tu bhāṣitam । caturthaṁ śivadharmākhyaṁ syānnandīśvarabhāṣitam ॥ 1,223.18 ॥ durvāsasōktamāścaryaṁ nāradōktamataḥ param । kāpilaṁ vāmanañcaiva tathaivōśanasēritam ॥ 1,223.19 ॥ brahmāṇḍaṁ vāruṇañcātha kālikāhvayamēva ca । māhēśvaraṁ tathā sāmbamēvaṁ sarvārthasañcayam । parāśarōktamaparaṁ mārīcaṁ bhārgavāhvayam ॥ 1,223.20 ॥ purāṇaṁ dharmaśāstrañca vēdāstvaṅgāni yanmunē । (Garu. Pura. 1.223.17-20)
According to Garuda Purana, Upapuranas include Sanathkumara, Narasimha, Skanda, Shivadharma, Ascharya purana, Narada, Nandi purana, Kapila, Vamana, Ushana, Brahmanda, Varuna, Kalika, Maheshvara, Samba, Parashara, Maricha, Bhargava puranas.

According to Swami Sivananda the Upa-puranas are: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa, Mudgala, and Hamsa. The Ganesa and Mudgala Puranas are sectarian Upapuranas devoted to Ganesha.<ref name=":022" />

Thus, Upapuranas are said to be more recent, having names similar to those in Mahapuranas and deal not only with Shiva and Vishnu but also Surya, Shakti, Ganapati deities.<ref name=":7">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>

==== Puranas Vs Sthala Puranas ====
Puranas are large ancient texts, included in the Chaturdasha vidyas different from the sthalapuranas which are not classified so. Sthalapuranas narrate the local legends and stories connected with a certain tirtha or temple (the word `Sthala` means `Place` in Samskrit). There are numerous Sthala Puranas, some having legends associated with locals in that place, some with references in samskrit literature. Many such local anecdotes and some of the Samskrit versions also appear in a Mahapurana or an Upapurana. Examples : Story of Bhakta Kannappa associated with Shiva temple in Srisailam (association of a local legend). Srisailam has a puranic references as one of the Jyotirlingas. Gokarna temple has the puranic legend of Shivalinga pratisha done by Ravanasura.

===The Itihasas===
{{Main|Itihasas}}Referred to as Epics, there are two books under this heading generally accepted by the scholars:
#Ramayana
#Mahabharata
These two epics embody all that is in the Vedas, but only in a simpler manner. These also belong to the category of Suhrit-Sammitas or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are called the Prabhu-Sammitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.

These works explain the great universal truths in the form of historical narratives, stories and dialogues. These are very interesting volumes and are liked by all, from the inquisitive child to the intellectual scholar and have kept the Dharmik traditions alive through the ages of invasion and turmoil in Bharatavarsha. The Itihasas give us beautiful stories of absorbing interest and importance, through which all the fundamental teachings of Sanatana Dharma are impressed on one's mind. The laws of Smritis and the principles of the Vedas are stamped firmly on the minds of the people of Bharatavarsha through the noble and marvellous deeds of their great national heroes. We get a clear idea of Dharmas from these sublime stories. The awe-inspiring Brahman or Purusha expressed in high abstract philosophy of the Upanishads, Vedanta and the Brahma Sutras were brought closer to the educationists, warriors, a businessman, a farmer in the fields in an way intelligible to all of them. Hence, the compassionate seers Valmiki and Vyasa wrote the Itihasas for the benefit of common people. The same philosophy is presented with analogies and parables in a tasteful form to the common run of mankind.<ref name=":022" />
====Ramayana and Mahabharata====
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful Sastras of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.<ref name=":024" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref name=":7" />
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}
====Ramayana====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic.

The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Bharat's Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual seva (सेवा | selfless service). Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022" /> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|[[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]]], Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

==== पञ्चमवेदः ॥ Panchamaveda ====
Though the general agreement about the number of vedas is four, there are instances in literature about Panchamaveda. However, in [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four vedas]] the language and format of the writings are different from that of the Puranas and Itihasas which are called the Panchamaveda. Skanda Purana and Bhagavata purana<ref name=":03">Shrimad Bhagavata Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Skanda 1 Adhyaya 4])</ref><ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref> mention that Puranas and Itihasa constitute Panchamaveda while Bhavishya purana states that Mahabharata is called Panchamaveda<ref>Upadhyaya, Baburam. (2012) ''[https://archive.org/stream/BhavishyaPuranaWithHindiTranslationPart1BaburamUpadhyaya2012/Bhavishya%20Purana%20with%20Hindi%20Translation%20Part%201%20-%20Baburam%20Upadhyaya%202012#page/n68 Bhavishya Mahapurana with Hindi Translation Volume 1 Brahmaparva.]'' Prayag : Hindi Sahitya Sammelan</ref>

=== Darshana Shastras ===
The ancient Bharat's thought process, the tattvas and siddhantas related to Sanatana Dharma are deeply dealt with in the six views or systems called as Shad Darshanas. Based on the Vedic knowledge, they are all designed to lead man to the One Science, the One Wisdom, which saw One Self as Real (Truth or Satya). They along with the Vedas and other Vaidika vangmaya are however classified as Apara vidya leading one to know the One Self (Atman) through the experience of Self which was called Para vidya. Since these shastras are founded accepting the authority of the Vedas they are called Astika darshanas. They are best understood when seen in relation with each other, thus revealing their Unity rather than when seen in opposition. The six Astika Darshanas or [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]] are<ref name=":024" /> {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Mimamsa Darshana (मीमांसदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Vedanta Darshana (वेदान्तदर्शनम्)]]
}}Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the [[Shastra Shikshana Paddhati (शास्त्रशिक्षणपद्धतिः)|shastra shikshana paddhati]] or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds
* Adhyatmika
* Adibhautika
* Adidaivika
The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
* Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
* Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
* Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024" /><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information of the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|Nyaya Darshana
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|Vaiseshika Darshana
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|Samkhya Darshana
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|Mimamsa Darshana
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti

Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita Sri Shankaracharya) Vishishtadvaita Sri Ramanujacharya)
Dvaita (Sri Madhavacharya)
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

===Agamas===
Agamas are a special class of literature, which include theological treatises and practical manuals of devata aradhana (worship) which have also been handed down through a succession of teachers from the ancient times.<ref>J. Padmamalini, (2015) Ph. D Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/185281 Sri Prasanna Venkateswara Swamy Temple of Appalayagunta An Agamic Study]'' Tirupati : Sri Venkateswara University</ref><ref>S, Veerabhadra.(2016) Ph. D Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/185339 Vishnu Iconography in Andhra During the Vijayanagara period.]'' Tirupati : Sri Venkateswara University.</ref> However, Agama shastras are not part of the Vedas (which are also called Nigamas), and do not derive their authority directly from the Vedas neither are they antagonistic to Vedas. They are, in fact, vedic in spirit and character and use the veda mantras while performing the services. The Vedas explicitly do not discuss about pratima aradhana (murti or vigraha worship). Agama texts support the view that Japa, Homa, Dhyana and Archa are the four methods to approach the divine and of these, the Agamas are based on Archa (worship). They describe primarily the procedure and rituals of deity worship, rather lay down the rules for a devata vigraha to be worship-worthy, thus are related to devata vigraha (imagery and iconography) and devalaya nirmana (temple construction).<ref name=":6">Saligrama Krishna Ramachandra Rao. ''[http://ipindiaservices.gov.in/GI_DOC/427/427%20-%20GI%20-%20Agama%20Shastra%20and%20Temple%20Worship%20-%2025-06-2013.pdf Agama Shastra and Temple Worship.]'' Extract from : The agama Encyclopaedia 12 Vols.; Revised Edition of Agama Kosa</ref><blockquote>''The icon and its form, the temple and its structure, the rituals and their details, thus get interrelated.'' <ref name=":6" /></blockquote>They also give elaborate details about ontology and cosmology, liberation, devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras, mystic diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making, domestic observances, social rules, public festivals, etc.<ref name=":022" />

Agama is essentially a tradition (congregational, worship carried out in full public view) and Tantra is a technique (individualistic, carried out in quiet privacy, with self discipline and intensity), but both have similar ideology. Temple worship includes both Agama and Tantric worship sequences; several of them involving the devotees, while the tantric sequences are conducted by priests in the sanctum sanctorum away from public gaze. Agama worship methods of devatas include the rituals (Tantras), verbal chanting (Mantras) and through symbolic charts (Yantras). All the Agamas deal with 4 padas
# Jnana (Knowledge) includes the theological and adhyatmik aspects
# Yoga (Meditation) for mental discipline
# Kriya (Esoteric Ritual) lays the rules for temple construction and pratishta (consecration of deity)
# Charya (Ways of Worship) pertain to observing the achara vidhis (rituals) and festivals
The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, the Saiva and the Sakta. The three chief sects of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktism, base their doctrines and dogmas on their respective Agamas.<ref name=":022" /> The term Agama is used for the Vaishnava and Shaiva traditions, while those related to Shakti were termed as Tantric.
====The Vaishnava Agamas ====
The Vaishnava Agamas are primarily of two kinds:<ref name=":022" />
#Vaikhanasa
#Pancharatra
The Brahma, Saiva Kaumara, Vasishtha, Kapila, Gautamiya and the Naradiya section of the Santi-Parva of the Mahabharata is the earliest source of information about the Pancharatras.

Vishnu is the Supreme Lord and the Pancharatra Agamas are believed to be revealed by Sri Mahavishnu Himself.
====The Saiva Agamas ====
Less formal than the Vaishnavas, the Shaivas recognize twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Kamika. The Agamas are the basis of Kashmir Saivism which is called the Pratyabhijna system. The latter works of Pratyabhijna system show a distinct leaning to Advaitism. The Southern Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agamas as their authority, besides the Vedas. Shiva is the central deity in the Shaiva Agamas and they hold that the Ishana mukham of Shiva revealed the 28 agamas, while the other four faces of Shiva, namely Tatpurusha, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata revealed the four vedas. The 28 Agamas are placed in two categories :
* Shivabheda Agamas are ten in number
* Rudrabheda Agamas are eighteen in number<ref name=":022" /><ref>M. Arunachalam, (1983) [https://archive.org/details/TheSaivagamas The Saivagamas.] Madras : Kalakshetra Publications Press. </ref>

====The Sakta Agamas ====
There is another group of scriptures known as the '''Tantras'''. They belong to the Sakta cult. They glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They dwell on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God and prescribe numerous courses of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother in various forms. There are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in some respects. The texts are usually in the form of dialogues between Siva and Parvati. In some of these, Siva answers the questions put by Parvati, and in others, Parvati answers, Siva questioning. Mahanirvana, Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, Vishnu-Yamala and Todala Tantra are the important works.<ref name=":022" />

== Sampradayas ==
The Vedic vision encompasses all fields of knowledge as everything and everyone is integral part of the Supreme. There are practically innumerable branches of the main three schools (Advaita, Vishistadvaita and Dvaita), called Sampradayas, generally categorized as Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, and Smarta. These schools have developed independent literature over time after the particular preceptors who started or advocated the concepts.<ref name=":022" />

A Sampradaya is an ideological tradition in which a founder called as Acharya lays down some principles based mostly on the theological and darshanic concepts from Vedas and Vaidika vangmaya. These teachings are transmitted faithfully by his students who in turn became teachers after absorbing those principles and practices to perfection, self-realization and mastery. Any established set of theory and associated practices, forms a particular school of thought of the founder called as a Sampradaya and a traditional lineage of teachers from any Sampradaya is called Parampara. This concept applies at various levels and constitutes the basis of religious Institutions (or Mathas) founded by great Acharyas, and also the heritage of high level family traditions in the Hindu concept. <ref name=":8">Parama Karuna Devi, (2009) ''Puri, The Home of Lord Jagannatha.'' Puri :Jagannatha Vallabha Research Center</ref>

We see since vedic period, often these two (religious affiliation and family descendence) are highly interconnected as Vedic knowledge makes no difference between son and pupil. Many times we see the student is mentioned in the rishi's lineage. In the case of religious affiliation, a disciple approaches a Sampradaya because he is attracted by the particular teachings, beliefs and practices characteristic to that tradition, and therefore accepts to become integrated into the system.

Sampradayas mostly have a diksha procedure, a formal initiation further to which a strict adherence to the instructions and a specific check-and-balance system ensures that the disciple follows the beliefs of the tradition thereby sustaining it. The current teacher has the right and duty to train the aspirant disciples as required, and will endorse them only when they have demonstrated the appropriate realizations in theory and practice, according to the various levels and positions in the Institution. Such endorsement comes in the form of appointment in various positions as preachers, leaders, and initiating teachers. Sampradayas may be classified based on the deities<ref name=":8" />
* SrimahaVishnu : Vaishnava Sampradayas have the greatest number of subsects.
* Shiva : Shaivite Sampradaya
* Devi : (Durga, Lakshmi, Saraswati) called Shakta Sampradaya
* Ganesh : Ganapatyas
* Skanda : Kaumaras
* Suryas : Sauras

==Laukika Sahitya==
These writings are extensive and a few important of them have been discussed as follows<ref name=":022" />
===The Kavyas===
These are highly scholarly compositions in poetry, prose or both. The greatest of poetical Kavyas are those of Kalidas (The Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhav), Bharavi (The Kiratarjuniya), Magha (The Sisupalavadha), Sri Harsha (The Naishadha). The best prose Kavyas in the whole of Sanskrit literature were written by Bhattabana (The Kadambari and Harshacharita). Among those containing both poetry and prose, the Champu-Ramayana and the Champu-Bharata are most famous.
===The Natakas===
These are marvellously scholastic dramas embodying the Rasas of Sringara, Vira, Karuna, Adbhuta, Hasya, Bhayanaka, Vibhatsa and Raudra. The best dramas are written by Kalidasa (Sakuntala), Bhavabhuti (Uttara Rama-Charit), and Visakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).
===The Alankaras===
The Alankaras are the grand rhetorical texts, that highlight the science of perfection and beauty of ornamental language, and of effective composition with elegance and force, both in poetry and in prose. These are the fundamentals of Sanskrit Sahitya, even superior to the Kavyas and the Natakas. The best Alankara-Granthas are those of Mammata (Kavyaprakasa) and Jagannatha (Rasagangudhara).
===The Subhashitas===
The Subhashitas are wise sayings, instructions and stories, either in poetry or in prose. Examples are Bhartrihari's three centuries of verses, the Subhashita-Ratna-Bhandagara and Somadeva Bhatta's Katha-Sarit-Sagara or Kshemendra's Brihat-Katha-Manjari. The Panchatantra and the Hitopadesa also belong to this category.

== Verses and Meanings ==
Vishnupurana (3.6.20 - 24) details the 18 Mahapuranas as follows<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते । ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा ।। २० ।।</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē । brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā ।। 20 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।। २१ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।। 21 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम् । वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चात्र त्रयोदशम् ।। २२ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivartaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam । vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcātra trayōdaśam ।। 22 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम् । मात्स्यञ्च गारुड़ञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततः परम ।। २३ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam । mātsyañca gāruḍa़ñcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥ parama ।। 23 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। २४ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। 24 ।।</blockquote>

==References==
<references />
[[Category:About Dharmawiki]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2021-01-15T13:44:13Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smrti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely adhyatmik but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures of yajnas from different vedas) and a few others are simplified summaries of codes of social existence (like the Puranas in story format, Dharmashastras in a stern format) for a comparatively easier understanding (including the Mahabharata) than the Veda itself. The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas]] (6)
# [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|उपवेदाः || Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4) which are broadly covered under the following three divisions as discussed in the section below
## [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|पुराणानि || Puranas]] (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|इतिहासः || Itihasa]] (2)
## [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras]] (6)
## [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas]] or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, [[Parishista (परिशिष्टम्)|Parishistas]])
Thus we see that the above literature is a vast body of knowledge which was imparted by the Guru (Acharyas, Preceptors) to his Shishyas (disciples) in the Gurukula System of education which was in practice in ancient days. The disciples of a Guru (belonging to a particular shaka of one of the Four Vedas) were taught a particular shaka of the Veda along with the study of 14 ancillary Vaidika Vangmaya (or Veda associated subject matter) called as Chaturdasha Vidyasthanani and some went further to study 18 ancillary subjects called as Astadasha Vidyasthanani. Vidyasthanas are so called because they formed the core subject matter of [[Vidya (विद्या)]] equated to Education in present day parlance.

== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>http://tiny.cc/9vplhz</ref> for they contain the foundational comprehensive knowledge base of the four Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha) the four pillars of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]]. Chaturdasha Vidyas include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":022223">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
[[File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf|thumb|Chart of Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyasthanas]]
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्रं चतुर्थं तु विद्या ह्यष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstraṁ caturthaṁ tu vidyā hyaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|[[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|[[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|[[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)]]
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|[[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]]
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (6.236.14-17)<ref>Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivartaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्यष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hyaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual seva. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|[[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]]], Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]]. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Are a part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Include Smrtigranthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas, some completely free of slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Style of Writing
|Sutra format of writing terse short aphorisms applies to the prose form of presentation
|No brevity of writing in Sutra format is seen.
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Origin
|Do not claim divine origin
|A few of them claim divine origin (Ex: Brahma)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads namely Aachara, Vyavahara and Prayaschitta.
|-
|Affiliation to Vedas
|Quotations presented in Dharmasutras show a predilection for certain Vedas or associated shakas
|Topics are far more uniform without any predilection towards any Veda.
|-
|Relationship with other Sutragranthas
|Typically dharmasutras closely resemble other Sutragranthas namely Grhyasutras of a particular Veda
|No resemblance to other granthas.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Garuda (गरुडः)

2021-01-15T13:44:03Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

{{ToBeEdited}}

Garuda (Samskrit : गरुडः) is the son of Rshi Kashyapa and his wife Vinata. Aruna, the charioteer of the Sun, is said to be his elder brother. Considered sovereign among the feathered race and an implacable enemy of the serpents, Garuda is the vahana (mount) of Mahavishnu and is represented as having a white face, curved nose, red wings and a golden body.<ref>Kulapati Jibananda Vidyasagara (1900), Shabda Sagara, First Edition, Entry: [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.195943/page/n237 Garuda] </ref> [https://archive.org/details/ldpd_7285627_000/page/n469 Apte Sanskrit Dictionary]

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Garuda is mainly known as
Pakshi Raja: king of birds
Sarpa Vairi: enemy of the serpents
Vishnu Vahana: mount of Mahavishnu

Describing Garuda, the Vachaspatyam says,
कश्यपात्मजे विनतागर्भजाते | १ पक्षिराजे अमरः। विनतापिसुसिद्धार्था बभूव मुदिता तदा। जनयामास पुत्रौ अरुणं गरुडं तथा। विकलाङ्गोऽरुणस्तत्र भास्करस्यपुरःसरः। पतत्त्रिणान्तु गरुड इन्द्रत्वेनाभ्यषिच्यत । [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.325995/page/n1339 Vachaspatyam]

kaśyapātmaje vinatāgarbhajāte | 1 pakṣirāje amaraḥ। vinatāpisusiddhārthā babhūva muditā tadā। janayāmāsa putrau aruṇaṁ garuḍaṁ tathā। vikalāṅgo'ruṇastatra bhāskarasyapuraḥsaraḥ। patattriṇāntu garuḍa indratvenābhyaṣicyata ।
Meaning: The son of Kashyapa and Vinata, Garuda, is referred to as king of birds (Pakshi Raja) by Amara (in the Amarakosha). It further says that Vinata gave birth to two sons viz. Aruna and Garuda. Aruna, who was not physically developed became the charioteer of Sun (one who moves before the Sun) and Garuda was coronated with the prestige of lordship (indratva of the birds).

Garuda is also known for his enemity with serpents. It is said that, in a dispute between his mother Vinata and Kadru (her sister and Kashyapa’s other wife), about the colour of उचैःश्रवस् horse, Kadru defeated Vinata, and according to the conditions, made Vinata her slave. It was Garuda who, after a hard struggle with Indra, brought down Amrta inorder to free his mother. Though Vinata was then released, the Amrta was taken away by Indra from the serpents. This is seen as a cause of enemity between Garuda and the serpants. [https://archive.org/details/ldpd_7285627_000/page/n469 Apte Sanskrit Dictionary]

Garuda is mentioned in texts like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Garuda Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Matsya Purana, Skanda Purana (Revakhanda), Agni Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Varaha Purana etc.

Garuḍa, the son of Kaśyapa and Vinatā, the vehicle of Vishnu (Kṛshṇa), or the emblem of his flagstaff. In the meantime G. came out bursting the egg and ascended the skies. The gods thought that it was Agni, but were undeceived. Then the gods and the ṛshis praised G. and prevailed upon him to diminish his own energy and splendour: Bearing his brother Aruṇa on his back G. went from his father's home and arrived at his mother's side on the other shore of the ocean and placed Aruṇa in the east: G. carried the snakes on his back, but ascended too near to the Sun so that the snakes became scorched by the rays of the Sun: The serpents promised that if G. brought them the amṛta he and his mother should be freed from bondage (I, 27). Having been directed by Vinatā to live upon the Nishādas (b) but not to injure the brahmans, and being taught by her how to know who is a brahman, he set out, and, having come to the Nishādas, he raised a great quantity of dust, and opened his mouth; there the Nishādas entered by thousands, being blinded by the dust, and were devoured (I, 28). A brahman who, with his wife of the Nishāda caste, entered the throat of G., and began to burn him, was recognized and relieved with his wife by G. As G.'s hunger was not appeased Kaśyapa told him of the elephant Supratīka (b) and the tortoise Vibhāvasu: Then Kaśyapa blessed G. G. then seized the elephant and the tortoise and came to the tīrtha Alamba. A banyan-tree invited him to sit on one of its huge branches, but the branch broke (I, 29). G. caught the branch with his beak, and perceiving Vālakhilyas suspended therefrom with their head downwards he continued to fly with the branch, the elephant, and the tortoise, fearing to kill the Vālakhilyas if he should throw away the branch. The Vālakhilyas therefore gave him the name Garuḍa (etymology: guruṃ bhāraṃ samāsādyoḍḍīnaḥ, v. 1390). On Gandhamādana he saw Kaśyapa engaged in ascetic devotions. Kaśyapa propitiated the Vālakhilyas (c) for him, then they abandoned the bough and went to Himavat to practise ascetic penances. According to the advice of Kaśyapa G. flew away for a hundred thousand of yojanas to a mountain without human beings, there he threw down the bough and ate the tortoise and the elephant. Then he again rose on his wings: Omens foreboding fear began to appear among the gods. Bṛhaspati declared that it was owing to the fault of Indra and the ascetic penances of the Vālakhilyas (cf. § 45) that G. now approached to take away the soma. Indra then caused the gods to surround and watch the amṛta (by the penances of the Vālakhilyas G. had been born as the lord of winged creatures (patatrīṇām indraḥ, v. 1455)).--§ 46 (Āstīkap.): G. attacked the gods, whom he blinded with dust, and Bhaumana lay as dead on the field. Indra caused Vāyu to dispel the dust. The Sādhyas and the Gandharvas fled eastwards, the Vasus and the Rudras towards the south, the Ādityas towards the west, and the Aśvins towards the north. G. then slew nine Yakshas, Aśvakranda, etc. (), who guarded the amṛta. The amṛta on all sides was surrounded with fire. G. then divided his mouth into 8100 mouths, and taking water from many rivers he extinguished the fire. Then he assumed a diminutive body (I, 32), and passed through the spokes of the revolving keen-edged wheel of steel placed before the soma. Then there were two great snakes, who would reduce to ashes everyone who might be seen by them. G. covered their eyes with dust, and unseen by them mangled them to pieces. He then flew away with the amṛta, not drinking it himself. He met with Vishṇu on his way and they agreed that G. should stay above Vishṇu, sitting on the flagstaff of his chariot and be his vehicle, and be immortal and free from disease without drinking amṛta. While G. was flying Indra hurled his thunderbolt at him. G. did not feel the slightest pain, but in honour of Dadhīca and Indra and the thunderbolt G. dropped a feather, and from its beauty he gained the name Suparṇa (I, 33). Indra and G. made friendship with each other, and agreed that G. should not give the soma to anyone for drink. Indra should bring it away after it had been put down by G., and G. should feed on the snakes. The snakes declared Vinatā to be free; G. placed down the soma on some kuśa grass, and while the snakes were performing their ablutions, their daily devotions, and other religious rites, Indra took up the amṛta and reṭurned to heaven. When the snakes licked the kuśa grass their tongues were divided in twain, and the kuśa grass, from the contact with the amṛta, became sacred from this time ([https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98210/page/n5 Index Names Mahabharata])

Also refer Mahabharata Cultural Index. Points:
* Origin
* Progeny
* Eminence
* Bringer of Amrta
* Galava Episode
* Sumukha Episode
* Association with Vishnu
* Association with Sesha
* Association with Skanda
* Other feats:
* Strength
* Greatness

== Names ==
गरुत्मान्गरुडस्तार्क्ष्यो वैनतेयः खगेश्वरः। नागान्तको विष्णुरथः सुपर्णः पन्नगाशनः॥ 1।1।29।1।2

स्वामी : विष्णुः

सम्बन्धि1 : विष्णुः

पदार्थ-विभागः : , द्रव्यम्, पृथ्वी, चलसजीवः, मनुष्येतरः, अलौकिकप्राणी [https://archive.org/details/AmaraKosha/page/n17 Amarkosha]

गरुडः, गरुत्मान् m. (-त्मत्), तार्क्ष्यः, खगेश्वरः, सुपर्णः, विष्णुरथः, वैनतेयः, विनतासूनुः m., नागान्तकः, पन्नगाशनः, भुजगदारणः, सिताननः, दक्षाय्यः. The son of Garuda is called सम्पातिः -तिकः. (MW)

== Genealogy ==
Descended from viṣṇu thus:--brahmā -marīci--kaśyapa--garuḍa.<ref name=":1" />

Lineage of Garuda

Ramayana, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|[[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]]], [https://www.valmikiramayan.net/utf8/aranya/sarga14/aranya_14_frame.htm Canto 14.]

== जन्म ॥ Birth ==
The story of Garuda's birth occurs in Adhyaya 16 in the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata.

It is said that, in the Satya Yuga, Daksha Prajapati had two beautiful daughters viz. Kadru and Vinata. They were married to Rshi Kashyapa. One day, Kashyapa who was as powerful as Prajapati Brahma, being much pleased granted both his wives a boon of their choice. Kadru chose to have a thousand nagas as her children while Vinata chose to have two sons more powerful and heroic than the thousand sons of Kadru. Both being thus satisfied with the boon, Kashyapa retreated into the forest.

After a long time, Kadru laid thousand eggs and Vinata laid two eggs. The maids were elated and preserved the eggs in hot pots. In the 500th year, the eggs of Kadru hatched and thousand serpents of various kinds emerged out of them. But Vinata's eggs did not seem to hatch. This offended her and therefore, she broke open one of the eggs with her own hands. However, she noticed that only the upper body of her son had developed.<ref name=":0">Ramanarayanadatta Shastri Pandeya, Mahabharata (Vol.1), Gorakhpur: Gita Press, Adi Parva, [https://archive.org/details/MAHABHARATA_201902/page/n105 Adhyaya 16].</ref> It is said that, this son cursed his mother in anger saying, <blockquote>स पुत्रः क्रोधसंरब्धः शशापैनामिति श्रुतिः। योऽहमेवं कृतो मातस्त्वया लोभपरीतया ॥१८॥</blockquote><blockquote>शरीरेणासमग्रेण तस्माद्दासी भविष्यसि। पञ्च वर्षशतान्यस्या यया विस्पर्धसे सह ॥१९॥<ref name=":2">Mahabharata, Adi Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-01-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-016 Adhyaya 16].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''sa putraḥ krodhasaṁrabdhaḥ śaśāpaināmiti śrutiḥ। yo'hamevaṁ kr̥to mātastvayā lobhaparītayā ॥18॥''</blockquote><blockquote>''śarīreṇāsamagreṇa tasmāddāsī bhaviṣyasi। pañca varṣaśatānyasyā yayā vispardhase saha ॥19॥''</blockquote>Meaning: Oh mother ! You have left me half grown by falling prey to your greed and did not let me develop completely. Therefore, you will become the maid of that very person (co-wife) whom you envy.<ref name=":0" />

However, he also uttered the means of redemption from the curse. He said,<blockquote>एष च त्वां सुतो मातर्दासीत्वान्मोचयिष्यति । यद्येनमपि मातस्त्वं मामिवाण्डविभेदनात् ॥२०॥<ref name=":2" /></blockquote><blockquote>''eṣa ca tvāṁ suto mātardāsītvānmocayiṣyati । yadyenamapi mātastvaṁ māmivāṇḍavibhedanāt ॥20॥''</blockquote>Meaning: And O Mother ! Your second son in this other egg will relieve you from this slavery, provided you let him develop completely and not break the egg as you did in my case.

Having thus asked Vinata to wait for 500 years more for the birth of her second son, Aruna rose to the sky where he became the charioteer of the Sun. And later, at the stipulated time, Garuda, the destroyer of the serpents was born.<ref name=":0" />

500 years the egg broke itself open and out came garuḍa with blazing effulgence, and he rose up in the sky. His body glowed like the sun. The devas who got themselves dimmed by his effulgence asked Agnideva the reason therefor. Agnideva told them about the birth of garuḍa and also that he was equally effulgent as himself (Agnideva). Then all of them went to garuḍa and lavished on his head all possible blessings, and garuḍa, as requested by them, controlled his effulgence and returned to his mother. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 23).<ref name=":1" />

shortly after his birth he frightened the deities by his brilliant lustre; they supposed him to be अग्नि, and requested his protection; when they discovered that he was गरुड, they praised him as the highest being, and called him fire and sun MBh. i, 1239 ff.; (MW)

Once Prajapati Kashyapa was doing a yajna with the desire of obtaining a son. He was being helped by rshis, deities and gandharvas. Accordingly, the task of collecting samidha was entrusted to Indra, the Valakhilya rshis and other deities. The powerful Indra chose to bring wood befitting his strength. As he was carrying mountain like log of wood, he came across the Valakhilyas who were the size of half a thumb and were struggling to carry one twig of Palasha tree amongst them. Seeing this, Indra, overcome with pride, slighted and stepped across them. This enraged the Valakhilyas who took the sankalpa (vow) of obtaining a second Indra for the deities who would be a hundred times more valourous than the current Indra. This was a cause of great concern for the current Indra who then went to the resort of sage Kashyapa. Sage Kashyapa then explained to the Valakhilyas that it is due to Lord Brahma’s order that Indra rules over the three worlds. And their wish for a second Indra will defy the words of Lord Brahma. Therefore, he requested the Valakhilyas not to falsify the verdict of Lord Brahma. And in order that the wish of the Valakhilyas is also fulfilled, he suggested that may the child whose birth they seek become the Indra of birds. He requested them to bless Lord Indra who had come to them as recipient. Convinced by the speech of Rshi Kashyapa, the Valakhilyas said, “Oh Prajapati, our vow was to obtain an Indra while yours was to obtain a son. Therefore, may you accept the fruit of our vow.” Thus, Rshi Kashyapa’s wife Vinata, who at that time was following the vow of Brahmacharya to obtain a progeny was blessed to bear that great son whose birth was the result of the vows of Rshi Kashyapa and the Valakhilyas. This son, who came to be known as the Indra of birds, is none other than Garuda. Reference : Mahabharata ([https://archive.org/details/MAHABHARATA_201902/page/n135 Adi Parva] Adhyaya 31)

== Garuda in Mahabharata ==
Adhyaya 16 (Complete), 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34.

== Family ==
कद्रूर् नाग सहस्रम् तु विजज्ञे धरणीधरन् | द्वौ पुत्रौ विनतायाः तु गरुडो अरुण एव च || ३-१४-३२

Kadru gave birth to a thousand-headed serpent who is the bearer of this earth, and Vinata gave birth to two sons namely Garuda and Aruna. [https://www.valmikiramayan.net/utf8/aranya/sarga14/aranya_14_frame.htm <nowiki>[3-14-32]</nowiki>]

aruṇa and garuḍa were the two sons born to Vinata. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Canto 15).<ref name=":1" />

Vinata, a wife of Kasyapa gave birth to Garuda and Kadru and her sister gave birth to the Nagas.

The churning of the Milk-ocean was done before garuḍa was born. indra got a horse named Uccaiḥśravas from the Ocean of Milk. Between Kadru and Vinata a dispute arose as regards the colour of the horse's tail, Kadru saying that it was black while Vinata asserted that it was white. They further agreed to test the colour the next day, betting that she who was proved to be wrong would become the slave of the victor. As the nāga sons of Kadru hung on to the tail of the horse the tail appeared to be black and Vinata lost the bet and became Kadru's slave.

It was at this juncture that garuḍa was born, and he felt highly mortified to find his mother working as a slave of Kadru.

garuḍa, extremely pained at the pitiable plight of his mother, one day asked Kadru what price she and her children demanded for freeing Vinata from slavery, and Kadru demanded Amṛta from Devaloka as the price. garuḍa decided to get it and informed his mother about his decision to fly to Devaloka.

Vinata blessed her son that his wings would be protected by vāyu, the lower half of his body by sun and moon, the rest of the body by the Vasus and the head by agni. She also promised to wait there till her son returned.<ref name=":1" />

=== Birth (PE) ===
kaśyapa, grandson of Brahmā and son of marīci married the eight daughters of dakṣa called aditi, diti, danu, kālikā, tāmrā, krodhavaśā, manu and analā. And to tāmrā five daughters were born, viz. krauñcī, bhāsī, śyenī, dhṛtarāṣṭrī and śukī. Out of the five women krauñcī became mother of the owls, bhāsī delivered the bhāsas (types of birds) and from śyenī were born vultures and kites. haṁsa, Kalahaṁsa, koka etc. are children of dhṛtarāṣṭrī. From śukī was born Nalā and from Nalā, vinatā; aruṇa and garuḍa were the two sons born to Vinatā. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Canto 15).

There is a story in the Mahābhārata about the birth of Aruṇa and Garuḍa. Kaśyapa who was much pleased with the seva (सेवा | selfless service) of Vinatā and Kadrū asked them to select any boon they desired. Kadrū chose to have a thousand nāgas as her children while vinatā chose to have two sons more powerful and heroic than the thousand sons of Kadrū. After granting them the boon kaśyapa retreated into the forest.

After some time Kadrū laid thousand eggs and Vinatā two eggs. Both of them kept their eggs in hot pots. In the 500th year the eggs of Kadrū hatched and thousand serpents of various kinds emerged out of them. But Vinatā's eggs did not hatch yet, and the sight of kadrū playing with her children pained Vinatā much. She, therefore, broke open one of her eggs in secret, and a half-grown child stepped out of it. That child was Aruṇa. Aruṇa got angry that Vinatā forced open the egg prematurely. He told her that as punishment thereof she would become a slave of Kadrū. But, Aruṇa granted her redemption from the curse thus: After another 500 years the remaining egg of yours will hatch and a son endowed with exceptional power and prowess will be born to you. He will liberate you from slavery.” After telling his mother so much Aruṇa rose to the sky where he became the charioteer of the Sun. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 16. See also para 6 infra).

After 500 years the egg broke itself open and out came Garuḍa with blazing effulgence, and he rose up in the sky. His body glowed like the sun. The devas who got themselves dimmed by his effulgence asked Agnideva the reason therefor. Agnideva told them about the birth of Garuḍa and also that he was equally effulgent as himself (Agnideva). Then all of them went to Garuḍa and lavished on his head all possible blessings, and Garuḍa, as requested by them, controlled his effulgence and returned to his mother. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 23).

=== Vinata (PE) ===
The churning of the Milk-ocean was done before garuḍa was born. indra got a horse named Uccaiḥśravas from the Ocean of Milk. Between kadrū and vinatā a dispute arose as regards the colour of the horse's tail, kadrū saying that it was black while vinatā asserted that it was white. They further agreed to test the colour the next day, betting that she who was proved to be wrong would become the slave of the victor. As the nāga sons of kadrū hung on to the tail of the horse the tail appeared to be black and vinatā lost the bet and became Kadrū's slave.

It was at this juncture that garuḍa was born, and he felt highly mortified to find his mother working as a slave of kadrū.

kadrū and her nāga sons once ordered vinatā to carry them to the nāga residence in the middle of the ocean, called rāmaṇīyaka (Ramaṇam). Accordingly vinatā carrying kadrū on her shoulders and garuḍa carrying Kadrū's sons on his shoulders rose up in the sky. But, garuḍa did not relish the slavish work, and he, carrying with him the nāgas, flew up to the sun's orbit. The nāga children fainted due to the excessive heat. But, on the request of kadrū indra sent heavy rain and the nāgas regained consciousness. By then they had reached rāmaṇīyaka island.

=== Freedom of Vinata (PE) ===
garuḍa, extremely pained at the pitiable plight of his mother, one day asked kadrū what price she and her children demanded for freeing vinatā from slavery, and kadrū demanded Amṛta from Devaloka as the price. garuḍa decided to get it and informed his mother about his decision to fly to Devaloka. But, what about food till he reached Devaloka? vinatā solved the problem by advising garuḍa to eat the niṣādas he will meet on his way to Devaloka at the island called Niṣādālaya, at the same time specially forbidding him from eating on any account, brahmins who might be there, at Niṣādālaya. How to distinguish brahmins from others, queried garuḍa, and his mother replied by pointing out that the brahmin will burn the throat of him who tries to eat him, like fire. Then vinatā blessed her son that his wings would be protected by vāyu, the lower half of his body by sun and moon, the rest of the body by the Vasus and the head by agni. She also promised to wait there till her son returned.

=== In Devaloka (PE) ===
After saluting his mother garuḍa set out on his quest for Amṛta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. He reached Niṣādālaya, where while consuming whole lots of Niṣādas a brahmin and his wife also happened to get into his throat. garuḍa felt their presence immediately in his throat and requested them to get out of his mouth. Accordingly they got out and also blessed garuḍa, who continued on his journey.

Next garuḍa reached the forest where his father kaśyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission and requested him for something to eat. kaśyapa replied thus:--“You see a pool wherein an elephant and a tortoise are living for long as enemies. Long ago two brothers vibhāvasu and supratīka quarrelled over their paternal wealth and at the height of it vibhāvasu cursed supratīka to become an elephant when supratīka pronounced the counter curse that vibhāvasu should turn out to be a tortoise. You, my son garuḍa may eat that elephant and tortoise. May your journey for Amṛta be crowned with success.

Now, garuḍa after saluting his father, flew up in the sky carrying in his beak the elephant and the tortoise from the pool. As trees were falling uprooted due to the terrific vibrations caused by the lashing of his wings garuḍa did not find a convenient place to sit down to eat his food. While continuing the journey garuḍa saw a big tree, its branches spread out in a circumference of a hundred yojanas. But, as soon as garuḍa set foot on a branch of the tree it (branch) crumbled down. On that broken branch were the sages called bālakhilyas doing tapas hanging their heads down. Fearing that the sages might fall down garuḍa continued his flight holding in his beak the torn branch of the tree. But he could not find a safe place to deposit the branch with the sages. So he came again to Mount gandhamādana and saw kaśyapa, who apologised to the bālakhilyas on behalf of his son and also explained to them about his mission. The bālakhilyas were pleased and they left the place for the Himālayas. As advised by kaśyapa garuḍa deposited the branch of the tree on an uninhabited mountain peak. garuḍa ate the elephant and the tortoise there, and therefrom flew to Devaloka (Ādi Parva, Chapter 29, 30).

=== Curse of Valakhilyas (PE) ===
Even before the arrival of garuḍa ill omens began appearing in Devaloka. indra asked bṛhaspati for explanation about the ill omens. bṛhaspati with his divine eyes saw garuḍa approaching Devaloka for Amṛta, and he told indra about garuḍa born out of the powers of the tapas of kaśyapa and the bālakhilyas. He also told that such a fate as the present one befell indra due to a curse of the bālakhilyas. indra and the other devas stood guard over the pot of Amṛta ready to repel all possible attacks.

There was a reason for Garuḍa's birth from the powers of the tapas of the bālakhilyas, and also for indra to be put into the present predicament due to the curse of the bālakhilyas. Kaśyapaprajāpati, a long time ago, began a terrific yajña for a son, and indra and the bālakhilyas who numbered more than 60,000 were deputed by kaśyapa to collect firewood for the yajña. The bālakhilyas were only of the size of a thumb, and indra who very easily collected all the firewood needed for the yajña laughed at the tiny bālakhilyas who were carrying small twigs etc. for firewood. Angered at the insult the bālakhilyas removed themselves to another place nearby and began a yajña directed against indra who alarmed at it sought the help of kaśyapa who then held peace talks with the bālakhilyas. They transferred their yāgaśakti (yājñic powers) also to kaśyapa and agreed to be satisfied with the condition that as the result of Kaśyapa's yajña a son should be born to him, who (the son) would defeat indra. Thus, for the time being indra escaped from the wrath of the bālakhilyas. After the yajña was over vinatā came to kaśyapa and he blessed her with a son wishing that he should become exceptionally strong and powerful, and that was garuḍa. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 30).

=== Amṛtakalaśāpaharaṇam. (PE) ===
garuḍa approached the pot of nectar, and viśvakarmā who attacked him first was felled to the ground. The dust storm raised by the waving of Garuḍa's wings blinded everybody. The devas and indra, nay, even the sun and the Moon lined up against garuḍa, but he defeated them all, and entered the particular place where the pot of nectar was kept. Two terrific wheels were rotating round the pot and they would cut into mince-meat anybody who tried to lay hands on the pot and a machine circled the wheels. Below the wheels were two monstrous serpents with glowing eyes and protruding tongues like flashes of fire, and the serpents never closed their eyes. The very look with those eyes was enough to poison anyone to death. garuḍa blinded those eyes by raising a torrent of dust, pierced them in the middle with his beak and and through the hole, his body reduced to such a tiny shape, went nearer to the pot. He destroyed the wheels and the machine, and carrying the pot of nectar in his beaks rose to the sky shielding the light of the sun by his outspread wings. Mahāviṣṇu, who became so much pleased with the tremendous achievements of garuḍa asked him to choose any boon. garuḍa requested viṣṇu that he should be made his (Viṣṇu's) vehicle and rendered immortal without his tasting amṛta. Both the boons were granted.

=== Indra (PE) ===
indra hit with the vajra (his special weapon) the wings of garuḍa who was returning from viṣṇu. It did not wound his body, but a feather of his fell in the atmosphere. Everybody who saw the feather acclaimed garuḍa as suparṇa (he with the good wings). indra was wonder-struck, and he approached garuḍa and requested that they should be friends in future and the pot of nectar be returned. garuḍa replied that the nectar would be returned if he was granted the power to make nāgas his food, and indra blessed him that he would live by consuming nāgas. And then garuḍa told indra thus: “I took this pot of amṛta not for my own use. The nāgas cheated my mother and made her a slave, and she will be freed if only this pot of nectar is given to them (nāgas). You may snatch off the pot from the nāgas; I shall not object to it.”

indra and garuḍa thus became friends and the former followed garuḍa on his way back home.

9) garuḍa handed over the pot of amṛta to the nāgas and indra cheated them of it. garuḍa handed over the pot of nectar to the nāgas, who on the suggestion of the former placed the pot on darbha grass spread on the ground. Also, in accordance with Garuḍa's advice that they should take a purificatory bath before tasting the amṛta the nāgas went out to have the bath, and in their absence indra carried off the pot of nectar back to Devaloka. Failing to find the pot of nectar on their return from bath the aggrieved nāgas licked the darbha on which the pot was placed with the result that their tongues were cloven into two. It was from that day onwards that the nāgas became double-tongued (dvijihvas). And, thus garuḍa redeemed his mother from slavery. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 34)

10) The fig tree which garuḍa broke with his beaks and laṅkā. It has been noted above that garuḍa on his way to Devaloka rested on a fig tree. That fig is called subhadra in vālmīki rāmāyaṇa.

rāvaṇa saw the fig tree around which sages were sitting and which bore marks made by garuḍa sitting thereon. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Canto 35, Verse 26).

There is some connection between this tree and laṅkā. garuḍa had, as directed by kaśyapa, deposited in the sea the branch of the tree on which the bālakhilyas hung in tapas and with which garuḍa flew hither and thither fearing about the safety of the bālakhilyas. At the spot in the sea where the branch was deposited sprang up an island like the peak of a mountain. It was this island which in after years became reputed as laṅkā. (kathāsaritsāgara, Kathāmukhalaṁbaka, Taraṅga 4).

11) garuḍa, saubhari and kāliya. garuḍa had always entertained great hatred against the nāgas, and now Indra's permission having been obtained by him to eat the nāgas for food, garuḍa decided to launch a regular nāga-hunting expedition. He began eating the nāgas one by one. Alarmed at this the nāgas planned for their security in a conclave, and approached garuḍa with the proposal that one nāga would go to him daily to serve as his food instead of his indiscriminate killing of them. garuḍa accepted their proposal. After some time the nāgas proposed to garuḍa that they would conduct a sarpa-bali (sacrifice of serpents) and submit the food got out of the bali to him so that his nāgahunting might be stopped for ever. garuḍa agreed to this also. According to the new agreement daily one nāga began going to garuḍa with the food got out of the bali.

But kāliya alone did not agree to the programme as he did not recognise garuḍa to be superior to him in power. And, garuḍa, who wanted to teach the haughty kāliya a lesson challenged him to fight, and the fight took place in river kālindī, Kāliya's abode. During the fight the lashing of Garuḍa's wings raised the water in kālindī up in the sky and it drenched the sage saubhari all over, who was performing tapas on the banks of kālindī. saubhari cursed that the body of garuḍa be shattered into a thousand pieces if ever he entered that area in future, and thenceforth the place became a prohibited area for garuḍa. During after years kāliya was put up at this place.

A kadamba tree alone outlived the eflect of the poison of kāliya. The tree could outlive the deadly poison because garuḍa had rested on it on his way back from Devaloka with amṛta. (bhāgavata daśama Śkandha).

12) Relationship of garuḍa with the kings of the solar dynasty. King sagara of the solar dynasty was married to sumati, the elder sister of garuḍa, and there is a story behind the marriage.

There was once a king called subāhu in the solar dynasty. He married one yādavī, but for many years they had no issues. yādavī had become old by the time she conceived a child as the result of many yajñas etc. But, Subāhu's other wives, viz. co-wives of yādavī, did not like the prospects of yādavī becoming a mother. They administered poison to her with the result that yādavī did not deliver in time, but continued as a pregnant woman for seven years. The sad couple, for their mental relief went into the forest and lived as disciples of a sage called aurva. But subāhu died rather soon and yādavī prepared herself to follow him in the funeral pyre. But, the sage aurva prevented her from self immolation speaking to her thus: “You shall not act rashly. The child in your womb will become a famous emperor and rule over the whole world.”

yādavī yielded to the sage's advice and did not court death, and soon afterwards she delivered a son, and he was named sagara, which meant “he who was affected by poison even while he was in the mother's womb. It was this child who, in later years, became reputed as emperor sagara.

sagara married the elder sister of garuḍa when he was living as a boy in Aurva's āśrama, and there is a story behind the marriage, a story which related to the time when garuḍa was not born.

vinatā, mother of garuḍa, while she was working as the slave of kadrū, one day went into the woods to collect firewood for her mistress. In the terrible rain and storm that ensued, vinatā lost her track and wandered in the forest for many days before she could take shelter in the āśrama of a Sannyāsin. The pious man felt sorry for poor vinatā and blessed her that a son, who would be able to win freedom for her would be born to her. garuḍa was the son thus born to her.

Before the birth of garuḍa when kaśyapa and vinatā were living together with their daughter sumati the boy sage upamanyu, son of sutapas, went to them and told kaśyapa thus: “While touring round the earth I worshipped the pitṛs at gayā and I have been told that they (pitṛs) would get redemption only in case I married and became a father. I, therefore, request you to please give your daughter sumati to me as wife. vinatā did not relish this proposal. upamanyu got angry at the rejection of his offer and cursed vinatā saying that if sumati was given in marriage to any other brahmin boy she (vinatā) would die with her head broken into pieces.

It was during this period when vinatā was in a fix about the marriage of sumati that garuḍa was born to her. He also thought over the problem and argued like this: the curse is only against a brahmin boy marrying my sister sumati; why not sumati be given in marriage to a kṣatriya; but where to find an eligible kṣatriya boy? At this stage vinatā asked him to go and meet the Sannyāsin, who had promised her an illustrious son, in the forest and this Sannyāsin directed garuḍa to aurva, for advice and guidance. When garuḍa met aurva and sought his advice about the marriage of his sister, the sage thought that the context offered a very good bride to sagara. And, according to Aurva's advice sumati was married to sagara, and thus garuḍa became related to the Kings of the Solar dynasty. (brahmāṇḍa purāṇa, Chapters 16, 17 and 18). The Sixty thousand sons born to sagara by sumati were reduced to ashes in the fire which emanated from the eyes of kapila. (See kapila). When aṁśumān, the grandson of sagara was going around the world to find out these 60,000 sons he met garuḍa on the way, and it was he who advised that the waters of gaṅgā should be brought down on earth so that the dead sons of sagara might get adhyatmik redemption. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Bālakāṇḍa, Chapter 41).

13) Garuḍa's conceit laid low. A very beautiful daughter, guṇakeśī, was born to mātali, the charioteer of indra. In the course of his search for a suitable husband for guṇakeśī he came to Pātālaloka in the company of nārada, and there mātali selected a noble nāga called sumukha as his prospective son-in-law. But a month before garuḍa had eaten Sumukha's father Cikara, and he had also given notice to sumukha that within a month's time he too would be eaten.

nārada and mātali met sumukha at the abode of his grandfather āryaka, who was very glad to marry his grandson to Mātali's daughter. But, the threat of garuḍa that he would eat sumukha before the month was over stared them all cruelly in their face. So, they appealed to indra for a solution to the problem, in the presence of Mahāviṣṇu. indra gave an extension of life to sumukha and he wedded guṇakeśī. The marriage enraged garuḍa so much that he went to Indra's assembly and insulted both indra and viṣṇu at which viṣṇu extended his right hand to garuḍa asking him whether he could hold the hand. And, when garuḍa placed Viṣṇu's hand on his head he felt as if the whole weight of the three worlds was put on the head. garuḍa admitted his defeat. Mahāviṣṇu thus laid low the conceit of garuḍa. (Udyoga Parva, Chapter 105).

14) garuḍa helped gālava. gālava was a disciple of viśvāmitra. Once Dharmadeva, to test viśvāmitra, went to his āśrama disguised as vasiṣṭha and asked for food. As there was no ready-made food at the āśrama just then, viśvāmitra naturally took some time to cook new food, and he went with it, steaming hot, in a plate to the guest. Saying that he would return within minutes and receive the food, the guest (Dharmadeva) left the place, and viśvāmitra stood there with the plate in hand awaiting the return of the guest. He had to remain standing thus for one hundred years, and during this whole period it was gālava who stood there looking after his guru. When hundred years were completed Dharmadeva returned to viśvāmitra and accepted his hospitality, and then only could the latter take some rest.

viśvāmitra blessed gālava, and now it was time for him to leave the āśrama. Though viśvāmitra told that no gurudakṣiṇā (tuition fee) was required gālava persisted in asking him what fee or present he wanted. viśvāmitra lost his temper and told gālava that if he was so very particular about gurudakṣiṇā, eight hundred horses all having the colour of moon, and one ear black in colour might be given as dakṣiṇā. gālava stood there aghast at the above pronouncement of his preceptor, when garuḍa happened to go over there and hear from gālava about his sad plight. Money was required to purchase horses, but gālava was penniless. At any rate garuḍa with gālava on his back flew eastwards and reached ṛṣabhaparvata and they rested on a peak of it. There the brahmā woman, śāṇḍilī was engaged in tapas and she served them with food. After food garuḍa spoke disparagingly about śāṇḍilī. garuḍa and gālava slept that night on the floor, but when they woke up in the morning lo! garuḍa was completely shed of his feathers. garuḍa stood before śāṇḍilī, his head bent in anguish. śāṇḍilī blessed garuḍa, who then got back his old feathers.

Continuing their journey garuḍa and gālava reached the palace of the very rich King, yayāti. garuḍa introduced gālava to yayāti, who found it difficult to get 800 horses for gālava. But, yayāti gave his daughter mādhavī to gālava saying that he might give her to any King and get money enough to purchase 800 horses. After thus showing the means to get money to gālava, garuḍa returned home.

gālava gave mādhavī first to King haryaśva of ayodhyā, then to King divodāsa of kāśī and next to King uśīnara of bhoja and got from them two hundred horses each, and he submitted the horses and also mādhavī in lieu of the balance of two hundred horses to viśvāmitra as dakṣiṇā. A son called aṣṭaka was born to viśvāmitra by mādhavī, who had been granted a boon that she would not lose her youth and beauty even though she lived with any number of people. (udyogaparva Chapter 108).

15) Fight between garuḍa and airāvata. śrī kṛṣṇa once went to Devaloka and plucked the pārijāta flower from the garden nandana, and this led to a fight between indra and kṛṣṇa in which garuḍa also joined. garuḍa directed his main attention on airāvata which, at his blows, fainted and fell down. (harivaṁśa, Chapter 73).

16) Defeated by vāsuki. To churn the Milk-Ocean the devas and Asuras decided to use Mount mandara as the shaft and vāsuki as the rope to rotate the shaft. The attempts of the devas, the Asuras and the Bhūtagaṇas of śiva failed to uproot and bring with them the mountain, when garuḍa, at the instance of viṣṇu brought the mountain as easily as a kite carries a frog. Again, when others failed to bring vāsuki from nāgaloka garuḍa went and asked the nāga chief to follow him to the ocean of Milk. vāsuki replied that if his presence was so indispensable he must be carried over there. Then garuḍa caught the middle part of vāsuki in his beak and rose in the air. But, even though garuḍa rose beyond the horizon, when he looked down half of vāsuki still remained on the ground. garuḍa then tried to fold vāsuki into two and carry it, but, again to no purpose. Disappointed and humiliated garuḍa returned without vāsuki. Afterwards vāsuki was brought to the ocean of Milk by Śiva's hand stretched down into pātāla. (Kamba rāmāyaṇa, yuddha Kāṇḍa).

17) bhīma went in search of the saugandhika flower on account of garuḍa. While, in the course of their exile in the forest, the pāṇḍavas were put up at the āśrama of maharṣi ārṣṭiṣeṇa, garuḍa picked up from the depths of the sea one day a nāga called ṛddhimān, and due to the vibration caused by the lashing of Garuḍa's wings Kalhāra flowers from the garden of kubera were flown to the feet of pāñcālī. She wore the fragrant flowers in her hair saying that if she were to have good flowers, wind had to bring them. Since there was a mild and veiled insinuation in that statement that bhīma was inferior to the wind the former did not appreciate that comment by pāñcālī. And so he rushed to Mount gandhamādana to collect Kalhāra flowers. (Vana Parva, Chapter 106).

18) garuḍa saved uparicaravasu. Once a controversy started between the devas and the brahmins, the former advocating the use of goat's flesh in performing yajñas while the brahmins contended that grains were sufficient for the purpose. uparicaravasu, who arbitrated in the debate spoke in favour of the devas, which the brahmins did not like, and they cursed vasu to fall from the sky into the pits of the earth. This curse was countered by the devas blessing him that as long as uparicaravasu remained on earth he would not feel hungry and that he would regain his old form due to the blessings of Mahāviṣṇu. vasu prayed to viṣṇu, who sent garuḍa to the former, and garuḍa carried vasu to the sky on his wings. Thus vasu became again uparicaravasu. (śānti Parva, Chapter 338).

19) Other information about garuḍa. (1) A dānava once stole away the crown of Śṛī kṛṣṇa who was on a visit to Mount gomanta. garuḍa retrieved it from the dānava and returned it to kṛṣṇa. (bhāgavata, Daśama skandha).

(2) The monkeys who searched for sītā visited the house of garuḍa also. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, kiṣkindhā Kāṇḍa, Canto 40, Verse 39).

(3) garuḍa had married the four daughters of Dakṣaprajāpati. (bhāgavata, 6th skandha).

(4) He had a son named kapota. (Udyoga Parva, Chapter 101),

(5) During the rāma-rāvaṇa war lakṣmaṇa, sugrīva and all the monkeys swooned hit by the nāgāstra of indrajit. śrī rāma then thought of garuḍa, who at once came down on earth and bit away the nāgapāśa. (Kamba rāmāyaṇa Yuddhakāṇḍa).

(6) garuḍa was present at the birth-day celebrations of arjuna. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 122, Verse 50).

(7) At the birth of subrahmaṇya garuḍa submitted his own son, mayūra, as a present. (anuśāsana parva, Chapter 86, Verse 21).

20) Synonyms for garuḍa.

Garutmān Garuḍas Tārkṣyo Vainateyaḥ Khageśvaraḥ Nāgāntako Viṣṇurathaḥ Suparṇaḥ Pannagāśanaḥ. (Garutmān, garuḍa, tārkṣya, vainateya, Khageśvara, Nāgāntaka, Viṣṇuratha, suparṇa, Pannagāśana. (Amarakośa).

21) Names used in the mahābhārata to represent garuḍa. Aruṇānuja, Bhujagāri, Garutmān, Kāśyapeya, Khagarāṭ, Pakṣirāja, Patagapati, Patageśvara, suparṇa, tārkṣya, vainateya, Vinatānandavardhana, Vinatāsūnu, Vinatāsuta, Vinatātmaja. (For story regarding how garuḍa stopped eating nāgas see under jīmūtavāhana).

=== Amrtam ===
Amrtam which has been thus recovered after many such adventures, is still preserved carefully in devaloka. [ (1) M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 17. (2) M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 27, verse 16. (3) M.B. Adi Parva, Chapter 30, Verse 2. (4) Valmlki Ramayana, Aranya Kanda, 35th Sarga. (5) Visnu Purana, Section 1, Chapter 9. (6) Agni Purana, Chapter 152. (7) Bhagavata, 8th Skandha. (8) Uttara Ramayana.]

After saluting his mother garuḍa set out on his quest for Amṛta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. garuḍa reached the forest where his father kaśyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission<ref name=":1" />

once went to devaloka and brought Amrtam from there to be given to the Nagas, but Devendra came down and took it back. This story is given in Mahabharata from Chapter 27 onwards. Agni Purana, Chapter 19 refers to Garuda and Aruna as the sons of Vinata.

=== Garuda and Valakhilyas ===
Garuda (Eagle) who went to the realm of devas (gods) for Amrta (ambrosia) took rest on the branch of a banyan tree, and that branch was broken from the tree. Sixty thousand [[Valakhilyas (वालखिल्याः)|Valakhilyas]] were doing penance hanging head downwards on that branch. Garuda knew this only after the branch was broken. Fearing the curse form them he took the branch in his beak and flew about here and there. At last, according to the advice of Kasyapa, he took the branch to the mount Gandhamadana and without causing any harm to the small hermits placed it there (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 30).

garuḍa after saluting his father, flew up in the sky carrying in his beak the elephant and the tortoise from the pool. As trees were falling uprooted due to the terrific vibrations caused by the lashing of his wings garuḍa did not find a convenient place to sit down to eat his food. While continuing the journey garuḍa saw a big tree, its branches spread out in a circumference of a hundred yojanas. But, as soon as garuḍa set foot on a branch of the tree it (branch) crumbled down. On that broken branch were the sages called bālakhilyas doing tapas hanging their heads down. Fearing that the sages might fall down garuḍa continued his flight holding in his beak the torn branch of the tree. But he could not find a safe place to deposit the branch with the sages. So he came again to Mount gandhamādana and saw kaśyapa, who apologised to the bālakhilyas on behalf of his son and also explained to them about his mission. The bālakhilyas were pleased and they left the place for the Himālayas. As advised by kaśyapa garuḍa deposited the branch of the tree on an uninhabited mountain peak. and therefrom flew to Devaloka (Ādi Parva, Chapter 29, 30).<ref name=":1" />

=== Birth and Family ===
Vinata, a wife of Kasyapa gave birth to Garuda and Kadru and her sister gave birth to the Nagas.<ref name=":1" /> Once there was a dispute between Vinata and Kadru. Vinata said that the hairs on the tail of [[Ucchaishrava (उच्चैःश्रवस्)|Uchaishravas]], Devendra's horse, were white but Kadru asserted that they were black. To settle the dispute they made a bet. The condition was that the loser must become the servant maid of the winner. As instructed by Kadru, some of the Nagas went in advance and hung down from the tail of Uccaissravas, thus giving the false appearance of a tail with black hairs. By this trick Vinata lost the bet and had to become Kadru's servant maid. As a result of it, the task of looking after Kadru's children became Garuda's duty. Kadru told him that if he fetched Amrtam from devaloka and gave it to the Nagas, she was prepared to release him from the bondage. So Garuda flew up to devaloka, fought with the gods and defeated them. He returned with the pot of Amrtam and gave it to the Nagas. The Nagas went to take their bath after placing the pot on darbha grass spread on the floor. Just then Devendra swooped down and carried away the pot of Amrtam to devaloka. When the Nagas returned after their purifying bath, the pot was not to be seen. In their greed they began to lick the darbha grass on which the pot was placed. The sharp edge of the grass cut their tongues into two. This is why the Nagas (snakes) came to have forked tongues.<ref name=":1">Mani, Vettam. (1975). ''[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft Puranic encyclopaedia : A comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature.]'' Delhi:Motilal Banasidass. (Page 613 and 614)</ref>

गरुडः, पुं, (गरुद्भ्यां पक्षाभ्यां डयते उड्डयते । इति गरुत् + डी + डः । पृषोदरात् तलोपे साधुः । यद्वा, “गिर उडच् ।” उणां ४ । १५५ । इति उडच् ।) स्वनामख्यातपक्षी । तत्- पर्य्यायः । गरुत्मान् २ तार्क्ष्यः ३ वैनतेयः ४ खगेश्वरः ५ नागान्तकः ६ विष्णु रथः ७ सुपर्णः ८ पन्नगाशनः ९ । इत्यमरः । २ । २ । ३२ ॥ महा- वीरः १० पक्षिसिंहः ११ उरगाशनः १२ । इति जटाधरः ॥ शाल्मली १३ हरिवाहनः १४ अमृताहरणः १५ नागाशनः १६ । इति हारा- वली ॥ शाल्मलिस्थः १७ खगेन्द्रः १८ भुजगा- न्तकः १९ तरस्वी २० तार्क्ष्यनायकः २१ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥ * ॥ तस्योत्पत्तिकारणं यथा, -- “यजतः पुत्त्रकामस्य कश्यपस्य प्रजापतेः । साहाय्यमृषयो देवा गन्धर्व्वाश्च ददुः किल ॥ तत्रेध्मानयने शक्रो नियुक्तः कश्यपेन ह । मुनयो वालिखिल्याश्च ये चान्ये देवतागणाः ॥ शक्रस्तु वीर्य्यसदृशमिष्मभारं गिरिप्रभम् । समुत्क्षिप्यानयामास नातिकृच्छ्रादिव प्रभुः ॥ अथापश्यदृषीन् ह्रस्वानङ्गुष्ठोदरवर्ष्मणः । पलाशवृन्तिकामेकां सहितान् वहतः पथि ॥ तान् सर्व्वान् विस्मयाविष्टो वीर्य्योन्मत्तः पुरन्दरः । अवहस्याभ्ययाच्छीघ्रं लङ्घयित्वावमन्य च ॥ तेऽथ रोषसमाविष्टाः सुभृशं जातमन्यवः । आरेभिरे महत् कर्म्म तदा शत्रुभयङ्करम् ॥ कामवीर्य्यः कामगमो देवराजभयप्रदः । इन्द्रोऽन्यो सर्व्वदेवानां भवेदिति यतव्रताः ॥ (व्यूहविशेषः । यथा, मनुः । ७ । १८७ । “वराहमकराभ्यां वा सूच्या वा गरुडेन वा ॥” “सूक्ष्ममुखपश्चाद्भागः पृथुमध्यो वराहव्यूहः । एष एवपृथुतरमध्यो गरुडव्यूहः ।” इति कुल्लूकभट्टः ॥) [https://archive.org/details/ShabdaKalpadrumaComplete/page/n677 Shabda Kalpadruma].

== Gajakacchapa Akhyana ==
After saluting his mother Garuda set out on his quest for Amrta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. He reached Nisadalaya, where while consuming whole lots of Nisadas a brahmin and his wife also happened to get into his throat. Garuda felt their presence immediately in his throat and requested them to get out of his mouth. Accordingly they got out and also blessed Garuda, who continued on his journey. Next Garuda reached the forest where his father Kasyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission and requested him for something to eat. Kasyapa then tells him the [[Gajakacchapa Akhyana (गजकच्छप-आख्यानम्)]] about the origin of the elephant (gaja) and kacchapa (tortoise). (Mahabharata Adiparva Adhyaya 29)

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Devatas]]

Airavata (ऐरावतः)

2021-01-15T13:43:59Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

Airavata (Samskrit : ऐरावतः) is the celestial white elephant, which arose during ksheerasaraga mathana (churning of the milky ocean) and was offered as the mount for [[Indra (इन्द्रः)|Indra]], the swargadhipati according to Vishnupurana (1.9.7, 25). Said to be the son of Iravati, according to another version Airavata was instrumental in bringing about the churning of the ocean. Here we present different aspects of Airavata.<ref name=":0">Vettam, Mani. (1975). ''[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft Puranic encyclopaedia : A comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature.]'' Delhi:Motilal Banasidass.</ref>

== Airavata Swarupa ==
While in general context Airavata is referred to as the celestial elephant conveyance of Devendra, it also refers to<ref name=":0" />
* Name of a serpent that accompanies [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] in his ratha (chariot) during the month of Kartika<ref>The Vishnu Puranam (English Translation) ([https://archive.org/stream/VishnuPurana/Vishnu%20Purana#page/n223 Amsha 2 Adhyaya 10])</ref> in the Sharat season (52.14)<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 52])</ref>
<blockquote>विभावसुभरद्राजौ पर्जन्यैरावतौ तथा । विश्वाची-सेनजित्संज्ञौ कार्त्तिके चाधिकारिणाः ।। 11 ।।<ref>Vishnu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6 Amsha 2 Adhyaya 10])</ref> (Vish. Pura. 2.10.12)</blockquote><blockquote>vibhāvasubharadrājau parjanyairāvatau tathā । viśvācī-sēnajitsaṁjñau kārttikē cādhikāriṇāḥ ।। 11 ।। (Vish. Pura. 2.10.12)</blockquote>
* Name of an important serpent born to Kashyapa and his wife Kadru (mother of all serpents). Arjuna's father-in-law, Ulupi's father, Kauravya was a noble serpent born of Airavata. (Maha. Adi Parv. 213.18). Shesha was the first born, Vasuki after him, followed by Airavata, Takshaka, Karkotaka and Dhanajaya (names of the snakes given below)
<blockquote>शेषः प्रथमतो जातो वासुकिस्तदनन्तरम्। ऐरावतस्तक्षकश्च कर्कोटकधनञ्जयौ।। (Maha. Adi. 1.35.5)<ref>Mahabharata ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-01-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-035 Adi Parva Adhyaya 35])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>śēṣaḥ prathamatō jātō vāsukistadanantaram। airāvatastakṣakaśca karkōṭakadhanañjayau।।</blockquote>
* An asura killed by Sri Krishna as per [[Mahabharata (महाभारतम्)|Mahabharata]] (Sabha parva adhyaya 38)
One can come to know the form of this divine elephant as given below.
* white elephants with four tusks, swift-footed belonging to the lineage of Airavata (Bhag. Pura. 10.59.37)<ref>Tagare, Ganesh Vasudeo. ''[https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.126199/2015.126199.Ancient-Bharat's-Tradition-And-Mythology-Vol10-Part-4#page/n390 The Bhagavata Purana, Part 4 (Skanda 10).]'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd.</ref>
* a large elephant (Sarga 14, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|[[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]]], [[Ramayana (रामायणम्)|Ramayana]])
== Legends of Airavata ==
There are many legends about Airavata in different [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] and [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|Itihasas]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Lineage of Airavata ===
Valmiki Ramayana in the [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|[[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]]] 14th Sarga, the wounded Jatayu describing his family history to Sri Rama, gives the following account about the origin of Airavata :

Kasyapa, one of the Prajapatis, married the eight daughters of Daksa. One of them named Krodhavasa had ten daughters by Kasyapa. <blockquote>दश क्रोधवशा राम विजज्ञे अपि आत्मसंभवाः । मृगीम् च मृगमंदाम् च हरीम् भद्रमदाम् अपि ॥३-१४-२१॥ (Valm. Rama. 3.14.21)<ref>Valmiki Ramayana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AA Aranya Kanda Sarga 14])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>daśa krōdhavaśā rāma vijajñē api ātmasaṁbhavāḥ । mr̥gīm ca mr̥gamaṁdām ca harīm bhadramadām api ॥3-14-21॥</blockquote><blockquote>मातंगीम् अथ शार्दूलीम् श्वेताम् च सुरभीम् तथा । सर्व लक्षण संपन्नाम् सुरसाम् कद्रुकाम् अपि ॥३-१४-२२॥ (Valm. Rama. 3.14.22)</blockquote><blockquote>mātaṁgīm atha śārdūlīm śvētām ca surabhīm tathā । sarva lakṣaṇa saṁpannām surasām kadrukām api ॥3-14-22॥</blockquote><blockquote>ततः तु इरावतीम् नाम जज्ञे भद्रमदा सुताम् । तस्याः तु ऐरावतः पुत्रो लोकनाथो महागजः ॥३-१४-२४॥ (Valm. Rama. 3.14.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tataḥ tu irāvatīm nāma jajñē bhadramadā sutām । tasyāḥ tu airāvataḥ putrō lōkanāthō mahāgajaḥ ॥3-14-24॥ </blockquote>Meaning : They were: Mrgi, Mrgamada, Hari, Bhadramada., Matangi, Shardule, Sveta, Surabhi, Surasa and Kadruka. Of them Bhadramada gave birth to a daughter, Iravati. Airavata the large elephant is Iravati's son.

Mahabharata (Adi Parva Adhyaya 66) describes the origin of all creatures, and mentions that Airavata is the son of Bhadramana.

=== UttaraRamayana - Samudra-manthan Story ===
This is one anecdote of how Airavata was responsible for the churning of the milk-ocean. According to Uttararamayana version<ref name=":0" /> Once the sage Durvasas went to Devaloka. The devis gave him a grand reception at which Menaka presented him with a garland made of fragrant flowers. Durvasa on his way back meets and gives the sacred garland to Devendra. Indra, in all arrogance placed it on Airavata's tusk. The fragrance of the garland attracted a large number of bees to it. They swarmed round the head of the elephant and annoyed it. Airavata pulled the garland to pieces, trampled it and threw it away. Insulted Durvasas pronounced a curse that all the devatas would be subjected to the ills of oldage. Upon request by Indra the rishi relented and told him that if the Devas drank Amrta obtained by churning the ocean of milk they would remain ever youthful. Accordingly, the ocean of milk was churned by the joint effort of the Devas and Asuras and in the end the Devas cleverly took part of it. When the Devas drank Amrta, they regained their youth and immortality.

=== Mahabharata - Samudra-manthan Story ===
However, we find another story in Mahabharata of how Airavata rose as one of the treasures during samudra- manthan. It is said that when the devas and asuras churned the ocean of Milk, the four tusked, huge elephant also came up along with the other treasures such as Kalpavriksha, Kausthuba and Apsaras. <blockquote>ततो जज्ञे महाकायश्चतुर्दन्तो महागजः। कपिला कामवृक्षश्च कौस्तुभश्चाप्सरोगणः। (Maha. Adi. 1.18.52)<ref>Mahabharata ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-01-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-018 Adi Parva Adhyaya 18])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatō jajñē mahākāyaścaturdantō mahāgajaḥ। kapilā kāmavr̥kṣaśca kaustubhaścāpsarōgaṇaḥ।</blockquote>The Bhagavata Purana also describes the emergence of Airavata from samudra-manthan.(Bhag. Pura. 8.8.17)<ref>Tagare, Ganesh Vasudeo. ''[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150116 The Bhagavata Purana, Part 3 (Skanda 8).]'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd.</ref> According to Ramayana, Indra's elephant Airavata was responsible for the churning of the ocean of Milk. But in the Mahabharata, it is said that a white elephant with four tusks arose during the churning of the ocean of Milk and that Devendra caught and tamed it. An explanation for this discrepancy may be seen in Visnu Purana, 3rd Section, Chapter 1. Now six Manvantaras have passed. This is the seventh Manvantara. Each Manvantara has a new Indra. According to this, different Indras have their own Airavatas. <ref name=":0" />

== Gajadhipati ==
In the Visnu Purana we are told how Airavata was made the chief of all elephants. When the Maharsis had crowned Prthu as the sovereign King, Brahma gave new posts of honour to many of the devatas. <blockquote>पितृणां धर्मराजं तं यमं राज्येऽभ्यषेचयत् । ऐरावतं गजेन्द्राणाम् अशेषाणां पतिं ददौ ।। ५ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>pitr̥ṇāṁ dharmarājaṁ taṁ yamaṁ rājyē'bhyaṣēcayat । airāvataṁ gajēndrāṇām aśēṣāṇāṁ patiṁ dadau ।। 5 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>पतत्रिणाञ्च गरुडं देवानामपि वासवम् । उच्चैःश्रवसमश्वानां वृषभन्तु गवामपि ।। ६ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>patatriṇāñca garuḍaṁ dēvānāmapi vāsavam । uccaiḥśravasamaśvānāṁ vr̥ṣabhantu gavāmapi ।। 6 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>शेषन्तु नागराजानं मृगाणां सिंहमीश्वरम् । वनस्पतीनां राजानं प्लक्षमेवाभ्यषेचयत् ।। ७ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>śēṣantu nāgarājānaṁ mr̥gāṇāṁ siṁhamīśvaram । vanaspatīnāṁ rājānaṁ plakṣamēvābhyaṣēcayat ।। 7 ।। (Vish. Pura. 1.22.5 - 7)</blockquote>Summary : He made Soma (Moon) the chief of the Stars and Planets, of Brahmins, Yajnas and herbs, Kubera over the rajas; Varuna the master of the seas and all water; Visnu, chief of the Adityas. Along with these Brahma made Yama the chief of pitrs, Airavata of the innumerable elephants; Garuda of the Birds, Indra of the devatas, Ucchaisravas of the horses, Vrshabha of the cattle, Sesha of the serpents, Lion of the beasts and Plaksha (fig tree) of the medicinal trees.<ref name=":0" /><ref>The Vishnu Puranam (English Translation)([https://archive.org/stream/VishnuPurana/Vishnu%20Purana#page/n149/mode/1up Amsha 1 Adhyaya 22])</ref>

== One of the Astadiggajas ==
There is a belief that Airavata is one of the eight elephants guarding the eight zones of the universe. These eight elephants are called the Astadiggajas. Airavata is supposed to guard the eastern zone. (Chapter 66, Adi Parva, Mahabharata).

Airavata and three other diggajas are supposed to reside in Puskara Island. (Chapter 12, Bhisma Parva).

== Airavata's Defeat ==
There is a story of how the tusks of Airavata were broken, narrated in the Asurakanda of Skanda Purana. Once an asura (demon) named Surapadma attacked devaloka. A fierce battle ensued between the devatas and asuras. In the course of this battle, Jayanta, Indra's son, was hit by an arrow and at once he fell dead. Enraged by this Airavata rushed at Surapadma's chariot and shattered it to pieces. Airavata then attacked Surapadma who broke his tusks and hurled him down to the earth. Airavata lay paralysed for a long time; then he got up, retired to a forest and prayed to Lord Siva. With the grace of Siva, Airavata regained his lost tusks and was able to return to devaloka.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Devatas]]
[[Category:Itihasa]]
[[Category:Puranas]]
[[Category:Ramayana]]
[[Category:Mahabharata]]

Valakhilyas (वालखिल्याः)

2021-01-15T13:43:54Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

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Valakhilyas (Samskrit : वालखिल्याः) were a group of sixty thousand rshis born to Kratu, one of the Saptarsis (seven hermits), by his wife, Santati. Everyone of them was only the size of a thumb, but they were as bright as the blazing sun and had attained control over their senses. (Visnu Purana, Amsa 1, Chapter 10).

== Introduction ==
The Balakhilyas, also known as Valakhilyas live in the mandala of Surya (solar region). They travel in front of the sun in the shape of birds. They wear hides of animals. They are righteous and are only as big as a thumb. They are very ardent in doing the works of devas (Gods) . They are sinless. There are Valakhilyas living in the lunar region also. They worship the Sun daily. All the world stand firm in truth because of the penance of the Valakhilyas. (M.B., Anusasana Parva, Chapter 141.).

== Garuda's birth and the Valakhilyas ==
A story connecting the birth of Garuda with Valakhilyas occurs in the Puranas.

Once Kasyapa Prajapati performed a sacrifice to obtain children. The work of bringing firewood for the sacrifice was entrusted to Indra and the other devas (Gods) and the Valakhilyas. When Indra was heaping up on heaps pieces of big logs the Valakhilyas who were very small were bringing in chips of wood. Seeing this Indra laughed. The Valakhilyas got angry and stopping the work entrusted to them began to do penance with a view to create another Indra. Knowing this Indra was much flurried. He went to Kasyapa and told him everything. Kasyapa went to the Valakhilyas and pacified them. At this time Vinata, a wife of Kasyapa, was doing penance to obtain a son. Kasyapa said that the penance of the Valakhilyas would not be fruitless and that as a result of their penance a son who would overpower Indra would be born to Vinata. Accordingly a son was born to her. Garuda was that son. The fact that Garuda overthrew Indra when he went to heaven for ambrosia, is well known. (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 31).

Garuda (Eagle) who went to the realm of devas (gods) for Amrta (ambrosia) took rest on the branch of a banyan tree, and that branch was broken from the tree. Sixty thousand Valakhilyas were doing penance hanging head downwards on that branch. Garuda knew this only after the branch was broken. Fearing the curse form them he took the branch in his beak and flew about here and there. At last, according to the advice of Kasyapa, he took the branch to the mount Gandhamadana and without causing any harm to the small hermits placed it there (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 30). When Dusyanta entered the hermitage of Kanva he saw the Valakhilyas doing penance, hanging down on the trees in the vicinity. (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 7). In Valmiki Ramayana, Balakanda, Sarga 51, it is mentioned that the Valakhilyas were engaged in prayer and meditations and offering oblations to fire in the hermitage of Vasistha. It is mentioned in Valmiki Ramayana, Balakanda, Sarga 51, that in the period of the Ramayana, in South India, when Ravana was going to the house of Marica, he saw the Valakhilyas doing penance. The Valakhilyas learned the Vedas and Sastras (scriptures) sitting in the chariot of the sun. (Kampa Ramayana, Parvakanda). (Page 101-102, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Garuda's quest for Amrta ==
After saluting his mother Garuda set out on his quest for Amrta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. He reached Nisadalaya, where while consuming whole lots of Nisadas a brahmin and his wife also happened to get into his throat. Garuda felt their presence immediately in his throat and requested them to get out of his mouth. Accordingly they got out and also blessed Garuda, who continued on his journey. Next Garuda reached the forest where his father Kasyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission and requested him for something to eat. Kasyapa replied thus: "You see a pool wherein an elephant and a tortoise are living for long as enemies. Long ago two brothers Vibhavasu and Supratika quarrelled over their paternal wealth and at the height of it Vibhavasu cursed Supratika to become an elephant when Supratika pronounced the counter curse that Vibhavasu should turn out to be a tortoise; You, my son Garuda may eat that elephant and tortoise. 'May your journey for Amrta be crowned with success. Now, Garuda after saluting his father, flew up in the sky carrying in his beak the elephant and the tortoise from the pool. As trees were falling uprooted due to the terrific vibrations caused by the lashing of his wings Garuda did not find a convenient place to sit down to eat his food. While continuing the journey Garuda saw a big tree, its branches spread out in a circumference of a hundred yojanas. But, as soon as Garuda set foot on a branch of the tree it (branch) crumbled down. On that broken branch were the sages called Valakhilyas doing tapas hanging their heads down. Fearing that the sages might fall down Garuda continued his flight holding in his beak the torn branch of the tree. But he could not find a safe place to deposit the branch with the sages. So he came again to Mount Gandhamadana and saw Kasyapa, who apologised to the Valakhilyas on behalf of his son and also explained to them about his mission. The Valakhilyas were pleased and they left the place for the Himalayas. As advised by Kasyapa Garuda deposited the branch of the tree on an uninhabited mountain peak. Garuda ate the elephant and the tortoise there, and therefrom flew to Devaloka (Adi Parva, Chapter 29, 30).

Even before the arrival of Garuda ill omens began appearing in Devaloka. Indra asked Brhaspati for explanation about the ill omens. Brhaspati with his divine eyes saw Garuda approaching Devaloka for Amrta, and he told Indra about Garuda born out of the powers of the tapas of Kasyapa arid the Valakhilyas. He also told that such a fate as the present one befell Indra due to a curse of the Valakhilyas. Indra and the other Devas stood guard over the pot of Amrta ready to repel all possible attacks.

There was a reason for Canada's birth from the powers of the tapas of the Valakhilyas, and also for Indra to be put into the present predicament due to the curse of the Valakhilyas. Kasyapaprajapati, a long time ago, began a terrific yajna for a son, and Indra and the Valakhilyas who numbered more than 60,000 were deputed by Kasyapa to collect firewood for the yajna. The Valakhilyas were only of the size of a thumb, and Indra who very easily collected all the firewood needed for the yajna laughed at the tiny Valakhilyas who were carrying small twigs etc. for firewood. Angered at the insult the Valakhilyas removed themselves to another place nearby and began a yajna directed against Indra who alarmed at it sought the help of Kasyapa who then held peace talks with the Valakhilyas. They transferred their yagasakti (yajnic powers) also to Kasyapa and agreed to be satisfied with the condition that as the result of Kasyapa's yajna a son should be born to him, who (the son) would defeat Indra. Thus, for the time being Indra escaped from the wrath of the Valakhilyas. After the yajna was over Vinata came to Kasyapa and he blessed her with a son wishing that he should become exceptionally strong and powerful, and that was Garuda. (Adi Parva, Chapter 30).

== Lanka island manifests ==
It has been noted above that Garuda on his way to Devaloka rested on a fig tree. That fig is called Subhadra in Valmiki Ramayana. Ravana saw the fig tree around which sages were sitting and which bore marks made by Garuda sitting thereon. (Valmiki Ramayana, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|[[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]]], Canto 35, Verse 26). There is some connection between this tree and Lanka. Garuda had, as directed by Kasyapa, deposited in the sea the branch of the tree on which the Valakhilyas hung in tapas and with which Garuda flew hither and thither fearing about the safety of the Valakhilyas. At the spot in the sea where the branch was deposited sprang up an island like the peak of a mountain. It was this island which in after years became reputed as Lanka. (Kathasaritsagara, Kathamukhalariibaka, Tarariga 4). (Page 281-282, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Hanuman learns Vedas from Surya ==
Being born of Siva and on account of the Sivasakti in him, Hanuman reached boyhood immediately. To learn the four Vedas and the six sastras he chose Surya mentally as his preceptor, and approached him with the request to be taught the Vedas etc. Surya agreed to have Hanuman as his disciple subject to the condition that the latter would not be permitted to sit with the Valakhilyas in his (Surya's) chariot and study. Hanuman agreed to the condition to learn from Surya walking in front of him. With book opened in his hand and concentrating all his attention on the face of Surya Hanuman traversed the sky and within a short period of sixty hours he mastered all the Vedas and the sastras thoroughly well. (Page 308, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Parasurama makes Sri Rama angry ==
When the fame that Sri Rama was the best of Kings spread far and wide Parasurama once went to see Sri Rama. Giving him the bow and arrow with which he had done the mass massacre of the Ksatriyas he challenged him to string it and take aim. With a smile Sri Rama did so and then Parasurama said Rama should draw the string up to his ears. Sri Rama got angry and then on the face, which became fierce, by his anger, Parasurama saw besides himself, Aditya-Vasu-Rudras, Sadhyas, Valakhilyas, Devarsis, oceans, mountains, the Vedas and all such things of this universe. Sri Rama sent out his missile from the bow. The whole universe was thrown into chaos. Thunder and lightning rocked the world. Heavy rains flooded the whole land space. Burning stars and meteors fell to the ground. Parasurama then knew that Sri Rama was the incarnation of Mahavisnu and he stood bowing before him. Ashamed of his defeat he took leave of Sri Rama and went to Mahendragiri. When he reached there he found he had lost all his brilliance. Then the manes appeared and advised him to go and bathe in the river Vadhusara. Accordingly Parasurama went and bathed in the river and regained his lost brilliance. (Chapter 99, Vana Parva). (Page 571, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Lord Siva's views on Valakhilyas ==
Eighty-eight thousand Valakhilyas were born from the mind of Brahma. They emaciated their bodies by constant baths, fasting and worship of Siva. Though they worshipped Siva thus for one thousand divya years, he did not appear in front of them. Afterwards, when Parvati was travelling by sky one day, the latter saw and took pity on the Valakhilyas and told Siva thus: "These maharsis are suffering like anything. For my sake, you should put an end to their sufferings. Has their evil fate no end? They are reduced to mere skin and bones, and yet they are denied realization." Smilingly Siva told Parvati as follows "You do not know the real course of righteousness. These people do not understand righteousness; they are not free from lust and anger. They are mere fools." At these words of Siva, Parvati told him thus: If things be as you have said please show me their nature, I feel interested. Then Siva asked Parvati to remain where she was, telling her that he would go to the Valakhilyas and show her how they behaved. Accordingly Siva went to them. Siva approached the Valakhilyas in the guise of a handsome youth, wearing the Vanamala garland on his head, holding the alms bowl in his hands and completely in the nude and requested for alms. The Womenfolk of the Advaitins were much attracted by the handsome youth and came to him with a lot of fruits, roots etc. by way of alms. (Page 729, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

Siva incarnated in the hermitage of the Valakhilyas in the mount of Gandhamadana during the period of Varaha Kalpa (Kalpa one day of Brahma or the period of 14 manus) . It is seen in Siva Purana, Satapatha Brahmana that Bali had four sons, called Sudhama, Kasyapa, Vasistha and Virajas. (Page 104, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Disscussion ==
60,000 Valakhilyas were born to Kratu as per (Visnu Purana, Amsa 1, Chapter 10).

It is stated in Mahabharata, Adi Parva, Chapter 65, Stanza 9, that the hermits called Valakhilyas were the sons of Kratu. (Page 417, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

The extremely bright Valakhilyas were born to Kratu by his wife Sannati. (Agni Purana, Chapter 20).

88,000 Valakhilyas were born from the mind of Brahma. (Page 729, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Duties in the month of Phalguna ==
In the month of Phalguna the Aditya Visnu, the serpent Asvatara, the celestial maid Rambha, the Gandharva Suvarcas, the Yaksa Satyajit, the hermit Visvamitra, and the giant Yajnopeta travel in the chariot. These seven persons live in the region of the Sun in their time. The hermits praise the Sun; the gandharvas sing; the celestial maids dance; the giants walk behind as guards. The serpents prepare the horses to be yoked; the Yaksas hold the bridle and the Valakhilyas stand round the Sun. These groups of seven in each month are responsible for heat, coldness, rain etc. (Visnu Purana, Amsa 2, Chapter 8). (Page 770, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== References ==
[[Category:Puranas]]
[[Category:Rishis]]

Airavata (ऐरावतः)

2021-01-15T13:42:51Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

Airavata (Samskrit : ऐरावतः) is the celestial white elephant, which arose during ksheerasaraga mathana (churning of the milky ocean) and was offered as the mount for [[Indra (इन्द्रः)|Indra]], the swargadhipati according to Vishnupurana (1.9.7, 25). Said to be the son of Iravati, according to another version Airavata was instrumental in bringing about the churning of the ocean. Here we present different aspects of Airavata.<ref name=":0">Vettam, Mani. (1975). ''[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft Puranic encyclopaedia : A comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature.]'' Delhi:Motilal Banasidass.</ref>

== Airavata Swarupa ==
While in general context Airavata is referred to as the celestial elephant conveyance of Devendra, it also refers to<ref name=":0" />
* Name of a serpent that accompanies [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] in his ratha (chariot) during the month of Kartika<ref>The Vishnu Puranam (English Translation) ([https://archive.org/stream/VishnuPurana/Vishnu%20Purana#page/n223 Amsha 2 Adhyaya 10])</ref> in the Sharat season (52.14)<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 52])</ref>
<blockquote>विभावसुभरद्राजौ पर्जन्यैरावतौ तथा । विश्वाची-सेनजित्संज्ञौ कार्त्तिके चाधिकारिणाः ।। 11 ।।<ref>Vishnu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6 Amsha 2 Adhyaya 10])</ref> (Vish. Pura. 2.10.12)</blockquote><blockquote>vibhāvasubharadrājau parjanyairāvatau tathā । viśvācī-sēnajitsaṁjñau kārttikē cādhikāriṇāḥ ।। 11 ।। (Vish. Pura. 2.10.12)</blockquote>
* Name of an important serpent born to Kashyapa and his wife Kadru (mother of all serpents). Arjuna's father-in-law, Ulupi's father, Kauravya was a noble serpent born of Airavata. (Maha. Adi Parv. 213.18). Shesha was the first born, Vasuki after him, followed by Airavata, Takshaka, Karkotaka and Dhanajaya (names of the snakes given below)
<blockquote>शेषः प्रथमतो जातो वासुकिस्तदनन्तरम्। ऐरावतस्तक्षकश्च कर्कोटकधनञ्जयौ।। (Maha. Adi. 1.35.5)<ref>Mahabharata ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-01-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-035 Adi Parva Adhyaya 35])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>śēṣaḥ prathamatō jātō vāsukistadanantaram। airāvatastakṣakaśca karkōṭakadhanañjayau।।</blockquote>
* An asura killed by Sri Krishna as per [[Mahabharata (महाभारतम्)|Mahabharata]] (Sabha parva adhyaya 38)
One can come to know the form of this divine elephant as given below.
* white elephants with four tusks, swift-footed belonging to the lineage of Airavata (Bhag. Pura. 10.59.37)<ref>Tagare, Ganesh Vasudeo. ''[https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.126199/2015.126199.Ancient-Bharat's-Tradition-And-Mythology-Vol10-Part-4#page/n390 The Bhagavata Purana, Part 4 (Skanda 10).]'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd.</ref>
* a large elephant (Sarga 14, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]], [[Ramayana (रामायणम्)|Ramayana]])
== Legends of Airavata ==
There are many legends about Airavata in different [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] and [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|Itihasas]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Lineage of Airavata ===
Valmiki Ramayana in the [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]] 14th Sarga, the wounded Jatayu describing his family history to Sri Rama, gives the following account about the origin of Airavata :

Kasyapa, one of the Prajapatis, married the eight daughters of Daksa. One of them named Krodhavasa had ten daughters by Kasyapa. <blockquote>दश क्रोधवशा राम विजज्ञे अपि आत्मसंभवाः । मृगीम् च मृगमंदाम् च हरीम् भद्रमदाम् अपि ॥३-१४-२१॥ (Valm. Rama. 3.14.21)<ref>Valmiki Ramayana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AA Aranya Kanda Sarga 14])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>daśa krōdhavaśā rāma vijajñē api ātmasaṁbhavāḥ । mr̥gīm ca mr̥gamaṁdām ca harīm bhadramadām api ॥3-14-21॥</blockquote><blockquote>मातंगीम् अथ शार्दूलीम् श्वेताम् च सुरभीम् तथा । सर्व लक्षण संपन्नाम् सुरसाम् कद्रुकाम् अपि ॥३-१४-२२॥ (Valm. Rama. 3.14.22)</blockquote><blockquote>mātaṁgīm atha śārdūlīm śvētām ca surabhīm tathā । sarva lakṣaṇa saṁpannām surasām kadrukām api ॥3-14-22॥</blockquote><blockquote>ततः तु इरावतीम् नाम जज्ञे भद्रमदा सुताम् । तस्याः तु ऐरावतः पुत्रो लोकनाथो महागजः ॥३-१४-२४॥ (Valm. Rama. 3.14.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tataḥ tu irāvatīm nāma jajñē bhadramadā sutām । tasyāḥ tu airāvataḥ putrō lōkanāthō mahāgajaḥ ॥3-14-24॥ </blockquote>Meaning : They were: Mrgi, Mrgamada, Hari, Bhadramada., Matangi, Shardule, Sveta, Surabhi, Surasa and Kadruka. Of them Bhadramada gave birth to a daughter, Iravati. Airavata the large elephant is Iravati's son.

Mahabharata (Adi Parva Adhyaya 66) describes the origin of all creatures, and mentions that Airavata is the son of Bhadramana.

=== UttaraRamayana - Samudra-manthan Story ===
This is one anecdote of how Airavata was responsible for the churning of the milk-ocean. According to Uttararamayana version<ref name=":0" /> Once the sage Durvasas went to Devaloka. The devis gave him a grand reception at which Menaka presented him with a garland made of fragrant flowers. Durvasa on his way back meets and gives the sacred garland to Devendra. Indra, in all arrogance placed it on Airavata's tusk. The fragrance of the garland attracted a large number of bees to it. They swarmed round the head of the elephant and annoyed it. Airavata pulled the garland to pieces, trampled it and threw it away. Insulted Durvasas pronounced a curse that all the devatas would be subjected to the ills of oldage. Upon request by Indra the rishi relented and told him that if the Devas drank Amrta obtained by churning the ocean of milk they would remain ever youthful. Accordingly, the ocean of milk was churned by the joint effort of the Devas and Asuras and in the end the Devas cleverly took part of it. When the Devas drank Amrta, they regained their youth and immortality.

=== Mahabharata - Samudra-manthan Story ===
However, we find another story in Mahabharata of how Airavata rose as one of the treasures during samudra- manthan. It is said that when the devas and asuras churned the ocean of Milk, the four tusked, huge elephant also came up along with the other treasures such as Kalpavriksha, Kausthuba and Apsaras. <blockquote>ततो जज्ञे महाकायश्चतुर्दन्तो महागजः। कपिला कामवृक्षश्च कौस्तुभश्चाप्सरोगणः। (Maha. Adi. 1.18.52)<ref>Mahabharata ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-01-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-018 Adi Parva Adhyaya 18])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatō jajñē mahākāyaścaturdantō mahāgajaḥ। kapilā kāmavr̥kṣaśca kaustubhaścāpsarōgaṇaḥ।</blockquote>The Bhagavata Purana also describes the emergence of Airavata from samudra-manthan.(Bhag. Pura. 8.8.17)<ref>Tagare, Ganesh Vasudeo. ''[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150116 The Bhagavata Purana, Part 3 (Skanda 8).]'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd.</ref> According to Ramayana, Indra's elephant Airavata was responsible for the churning of the ocean of Milk. But in the Mahabharata, it is said that a white elephant with four tusks arose during the churning of the ocean of Milk and that Devendra caught and tamed it. An explanation for this discrepancy may be seen in Visnu Purana, 3rd Section, Chapter 1. Now six Manvantaras have passed. This is the seventh Manvantara. Each Manvantara has a new Indra. According to this, different Indras have their own Airavatas. <ref name=":0" />

== Gajadhipati ==
In the Visnu Purana we are told how Airavata was made the chief of all elephants. When the Maharsis had crowned Prthu as the sovereign King, Brahma gave new posts of honour to many of the devatas. <blockquote>पितृणां धर्मराजं तं यमं राज्येऽभ्यषेचयत् । ऐरावतं गजेन्द्राणाम् अशेषाणां पतिं ददौ ।। ५ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>pitr̥ṇāṁ dharmarājaṁ taṁ yamaṁ rājyē'bhyaṣēcayat । airāvataṁ gajēndrāṇām aśēṣāṇāṁ patiṁ dadau ।। 5 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>पतत्रिणाञ्च गरुडं देवानामपि वासवम् । उच्चैःश्रवसमश्वानां वृषभन्तु गवामपि ।। ६ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>patatriṇāñca garuḍaṁ dēvānāmapi vāsavam । uccaiḥśravasamaśvānāṁ vr̥ṣabhantu gavāmapi ।। 6 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>शेषन्तु नागराजानं मृगाणां सिंहमीश्वरम् । वनस्पतीनां राजानं प्लक्षमेवाभ्यषेचयत् ।। ७ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>śēṣantu nāgarājānaṁ mr̥gāṇāṁ siṁhamīśvaram । vanaspatīnāṁ rājānaṁ plakṣamēvābhyaṣēcayat ।। 7 ।। (Vish. Pura. 1.22.5 - 7)</blockquote>Summary : He made Soma (Moon) the chief of the Stars and Planets, of Brahmins, Yajnas and herbs, Kubera over the rajas; Varuna the master of the seas and all water; Visnu, chief of the Adityas. Along with these Brahma made Yama the chief of pitrs, Airavata of the innumerable elephants; Garuda of the Birds, Indra of the devatas, Ucchaisravas of the horses, Vrshabha of the cattle, Sesha of the serpents, Lion of the beasts and Plaksha (fig tree) of the medicinal trees.<ref name=":0" /><ref>The Vishnu Puranam (English Translation)([https://archive.org/stream/VishnuPurana/Vishnu%20Purana#page/n149/mode/1up Amsha 1 Adhyaya 22])</ref>

== One of the Astadiggajas ==
There is a belief that Airavata is one of the eight elephants guarding the eight zones of the universe. These eight elephants are called the Astadiggajas. Airavata is supposed to guard the eastern zone. (Chapter 66, Adi Parva, Mahabharata).

Airavata and three other diggajas are supposed to reside in Puskara Island. (Chapter 12, Bhisma Parva).

== Airavata's Defeat ==
There is a story of how the tusks of Airavata were broken, narrated in the Asurakanda of Skanda Purana. Once an asura (demon) named Surapadma attacked devaloka. A fierce battle ensued between the devatas and asuras. In the course of this battle, Jayanta, Indra's son, was hit by an arrow and at once he fell dead. Enraged by this Airavata rushed at Surapadma's chariot and shattered it to pieces. Airavata then attacked Surapadma who broke his tusks and hurled him down to the earth. Airavata lay paralysed for a long time; then he got up, retired to a forest and prayed to Lord Siva. With the grace of Siva, Airavata regained his lost tusks and was able to return to devaloka.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Devatas]]
[[Category:Itihasa]]
[[Category:Puranas]]
[[Category:Ramayana]]
[[Category:Mahabharata]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2021-01-15T13:42:51Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smrti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely adhyatmik but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures of yajnas from different vedas) and a few others are simplified summaries of codes of social existence (like the Puranas in story format, Dharmashastras in a stern format) for a comparatively easier understanding (including the Mahabharata) than the Veda itself. The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas]] (6)
# [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|उपवेदाः || Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4) which are broadly covered under the following three divisions as discussed in the section below
## [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|पुराणानि || Puranas]] (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|इतिहासः || Itihasa]] (2)
## [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras]] (6)
## [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas]] or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, [[Parishista (परिशिष्टम्)|Parishistas]])
Thus we see that the above literature is a vast body of knowledge which was imparted by the Guru (Acharyas, Preceptors) to his Shishyas (disciples) in the Gurukula System of education which was in practice in ancient days. The disciples of a Guru (belonging to a particular shaka of one of the Four Vedas) were taught a particular shaka of the Veda along with the study of 14 ancillary Vaidika Vangmaya (or Veda associated subject matter) called as Chaturdasha Vidyasthanani and some went further to study 18 ancillary subjects called as Astadasha Vidyasthanani. Vidyasthanas are so called because they formed the core subject matter of [[Vidya (विद्या)]] equated to Education in present day parlance.

== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>http://tiny.cc/9vplhz</ref> for they contain the foundational comprehensive knowledge base of the four Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha) the four pillars of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]]. Chaturdasha Vidyas include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":022223">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
[[File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf|thumb|Chart of Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyasthanas]]
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्रं चतुर्थं तु विद्या ह्यष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstraṁ caturthaṁ tu vidyā hyaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|[[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|[[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|[[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)]]
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|[[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]]
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (6.236.14-17)<ref>Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivartaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्यष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hyaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual seva. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]], Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]]. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Are a part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Include Smrtigranthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas, some completely free of slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Style of Writing
|Sutra format of writing terse short aphorisms applies to the prose form of presentation
|No brevity of writing in Sutra format is seen.
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Origin
|Do not claim divine origin
|A few of them claim divine origin (Ex: Brahma)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads namely Aachara, Vyavahara and Prayaschitta.
|-
|Affiliation to Vedas
|Quotations presented in Dharmasutras show a predilection for certain Vedas or associated shakas
|Topics are far more uniform without any predilection towards any Veda.
|-
|Relationship with other Sutragranthas
|Typically dharmasutras closely resemble other Sutragranthas namely Grhyasutras of a particular Veda
|No resemblance to other granthas.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Kubera (कुबेरः)

2021-01-15T13:42:40Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

Kubera (Samskrit: कुबेरः) is revered as the devata for wealth and riches. He is the brother of Ravana and the ruler of semi-celestial beings such as Yakhsas, Gandharvas, Kinneras, Kimpurushas among others. His world is called Alakapuri, which lies to the north near Kailasha mountain, which is the abode of Shiva and Parvati.
==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==
Vaishravana or Kubera is known for his wealth and riches among the devatas. Even in the present day, Kubera is worshiped during Deepavali festival time. He is famous for his other aspects as follows, mostly as boons granted to him by his grandfather Brahma.<ref name=":1">Mani, Vettam. (1975). ''[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft Puranic encyclopaedia : A comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature.]'' Delhi:Motilal Banasidass. (Page 434 to 436)</ref>
* '''धनेश्वरः ॥ Dhaneshvara:''' Brahma granted him the rulership over wealth. (Mahabharata Vana Parva)
* '''लोकपालकः ॥ Lokapalaka:''' One of the rulers of the lokas.
* '''दिक्पालकः ॥''' '''Dikpalaka:''' One of the Ashtadikpalakas (eight regions), he is the ruler of the north region.
* '''लङ्काधिपतिः ॥ Lankadhipati:''' Ruler of Lanka, the capital of land of rakshasas, Kubera was defeated and driven out of Lanka by Ravana.
* '''यक्षाधिपः ॥ Yakshadhipa:''' Rulership over the Yaksha ganas and others like Vidhyadharas, Kinneras and Kimpurusharas (different groups of semi-celestial beings) was granted by Brahma as a boon.
<blockquote>तथा यक्षाधिपः श्रीमान्न वै वैश्रवणः प्रभुः। (Maha. Vana. Parv. 65.23)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā yakṣādhipaḥ śrīmānna vai vaiśravaṇaḥ prabhuḥ। (Maha. Vana. Parv. 65.23)</blockquote>Interestingly Yakshadhipati is mentioned by Mahakavi Kalidasa in his Meghadoota kavya.

==Family and Lineage==
Lineage of Kubera:

Mahavishnu ---- Brahma ---- Pulastya ---- Vaishravana (Kubera)
According to Mahabharata Vanaparva (Adhyaya 274), Brahma, the Creator, himself is the grandfather of Kubera and Ravana. Brahma had a manasaputra called Pulastya. To Pulastya was born Vaishravana through his wife Gau. <blockquote>पुलस्त्यो नाम तस्यासीन्मानसो दयितः सुतः। तस्य वैश्रवणो नाम गवि पुत्रोऽभवत्प्रभुः॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.12)</blockquote><blockquote>pulastyō nāma tasyāsīnmānasō dayitaḥ sutaḥ। tasya vaiśravaṇō nāma gavi putrō'bhavatprabhuḥ॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.12)</blockquote>Vaishravana's wife was Bhadra (Adi Parva, Adhyaya 198) and he had two sons Nalakubara and Manigreeva.<ref name=":1" />

==कुबेरस्योत्पत्तिः ॥ Origin of Kubera==
Mahabharata details that Vaishravana, leaving his father Pulastya, was always engaged in seva (सेवा | selfless service) of his grandfather Brahma. Angered by this action, Pulastya created another form of his from half his body, called as Vishravas. <blockquote>स जज्ञे विश्रवा नाम तस्यात्मार्धेन वै द्विजः। प्रतीकाराय सक्रोधस्ततो वैश्रवणस्य वै॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.14)</blockquote><blockquote>sa jajñē viśravā nāma tasyātmārdhēna vai dvijaḥ। pratīkārāya sakrōdhastatō vaiśravaṇasya vai॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.14)</blockquote>Vishravas held a deep resentment for Vaishravana and was always looking for an opportunity to attack him. Brahma was highly pleased with the seva of Vaishravana or Kubera (कुबेरः) and bestowed Amaratva (अमरत्वम्) or immortality apart from all the other boons. <blockquote>पितामहस्तु प्रीतात्मा ददौ वैश्रवणस्य ह। अमरत्वं धनेशत्वं लोकपालत्वमेव च॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.15)</blockquote><blockquote>pitāmahastu prītātmā dadau vaiśravaṇasya ha। amaratvaṁ dhanēśatvaṁ lōkapālatvamēva ca॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 274.15)</blockquote>Brahma encouraged Vaishravana to seek support of Mahadeva and granted him a son, named Nalakubara. He also gave Vaishravana the title of "Rajaraja" and granted Pushpakavimana to travel anywhere as per his wish via the aerial route.

Vaishravana or Rajaraja Kubera always lived in Lanka, enjoying all the wealth, he engaged people to carry him on their shoulders in a vehicle, hence called Naravahana (नरवाहनः).

Kubera is called Pingalaksha (पिङ्गलाक्षः) as he looked at Parvati, who was seated on the left thigh of Shiva, with jealousy. She cursed him to become blind in one eye. Later she turned that eye of Kubera into yellow color, thus he came to be called as Ekapingala.<ref name=":1" />

Puranic Encyclopedia mentions that Pulastya wedded Manini, also called Havirbhu, and a son called Vishravas was born to them. Vishravas married Ilabila, called as Daivavarnini, the daughter of Bharadvaja maharshi.<ref name=":1" />

== रावणस्योत्पत्तिः ॥ Origin of Ravana ==
Vaishravana who was granted many boons by his grandfather, Brahma, was always viewed with resentment and anger by his father's form Vishravas (विश्रवस्). He made many attempts to please him. To please his father Vishravas, he engaged the sevas (सेवा | selfless service) of three rakshasis (परिचारिकाः) named Pushpotkata (पुष्पोत्कटा), Malini (मालिनी) and Raaka (राका) well versed in song and dance and who served him competitively to gain his good graces. Pleased with their seva, Vishravas granted each of them sons according to their wish, who are as mighty with immense strength equal to that of lokapalakas.
<blockquote>पुष्पोत्कटायां जज्ञाते द्वौ पुत्रौ राक्षसेश्वरौ। कुम्भकर्णदशग्रीवौ बलेनाप्रतिमौ भुवि॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.7)</blockquote><blockquote>puṣpōtkaṭāyāṁ jajñātē dvau putrau rākṣasēśvarau। kumbhakarṇadaśagrīvau balēnāpratimau bhuvi॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.7)</blockquote><blockquote>मालिनी जनयामास पुत्रमेकं विभीषणम्। राकायां मिथुनं जज्ञे खरः शूर्पणखा तथा॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.8) </blockquote><blockquote>mālinī janayāmāsa putramēkaṁ vibhīṣaṇam। rākāyāṁ mithunaṁ jajñē kharaḥ śūrpaṇakhā tathā॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.8)</blockquote>Ravana and Kumbhakarna of Pushpotkata who were mighty rakshasas. Malini gave birth to one son named Vibhishana. Raaka gave birth to a male child named Khara and a female child named Surpanakha.

Pushpotkata was also called as Kaikasi.

==लङ्काधिपतिः ॥ Lankadhipati==
Once when Kubera, in his pomp and splendour was in the company of Vishravas. At that time Ravana and others were moved by jealousy over his wealth and grandeur. In their heart of hearts they all decided to do severe tapas (penance) to please Brahma. Ravana did penance for thousand years standing on one foot, living only on air and in deep meditation with Panchaagnis around him. Kumbhakarna similarly limited his food and slept only on the ground. Vibhishana sustained himself only on dry leaves during his penance. Clever and generous hearted Vibhishana also continued his penance for years along with his brothers. Khara and Surpanakha engaged themselves in protecting and serving their brothers who were doing penance. After a thousand years of penance, Ravana cut off one of his ten heads and offered it into Agni as ahuti.

=== ब्रह्मवरदानम् ॥ Brahma's Boons ===
Brahmadeva highly pleased with with their tapas asked them to wish for any boons other than Amaratva (immortality). Brahma granted Ravana that he can take any form as per his wish and will be victorious in wars with his enemies. It is then that Ravana makes his extraordinary request that he should never be defeated by Gandharvas, devatas, asuras, yakshas, nagas, kinnaras, bhutas which is granted by Brahma. Kumbhakarna, whose mind was controlled by tamas, asked to be granted sleep for a long time. Vibhishana requested that inspite of big distress befalling on him, he should remain undisturbed or a dharmic. Also he asked for the Brahmastra to be granted to him, with the knowledge of application (prahara) and retraction (upasamhara). Pleased Brahma along with these two boons grants Amaratva (immortality) to Vibhishana.
<blockquote>राक्षसस्तु वरं लब्ध्वा दशग्रीवो विशाम्पते। लङ्कायाश्च्यावयामास युधि जित्वा धनेश्वरम्॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.32) </blockquote><blockquote>rākṣasastu varaṁ labdhvā daśagrīvō viśāmpatē। laṅkāyāścyāvayāmāsa yudhi jitvā dhanēśvaram॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.32)</blockquote><blockquote>हित्वा स भगवाँल्लङ्कामाविशद्गन्धमादनम्। गन्धर्वयक्षानुगतो रक्षःकिम्पुरुषैः सह॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.33)</blockquote><blockquote>hitvā sa bhagavām̐llaṅkāmāviśadgandhamādanam। gandharvayakṣānugatō rakṣaḥkimpuruṣaiḥ saha॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.33)</blockquote>Ravana after having obtained the mighty boons, from Brahma which made him invincible, came to Lanka and defeated Dhaneshvara (Kubera) in a war against him. Having no choice Kubera had to leave Lanka to live on Gandhamadhana mountain along with Gandharvas, Yakhsas, Rakshasas and Kimpurushas.

=== रावणं शशाप ॥ Curse on Ravana ===
<blockquote>विमानं पुष्पकं तस्य जहाराक्रम्य रावणः। शशाप तं वैश्रवणो न त्वामेतद्वहिष्यति॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.34)</blockquote><blockquote>vimānaṁ puṣpakaṁ tasya jahārākramya rāvaṇaḥ। śaśāpa taṁ vaiśravaṇō na tvāmētadvahiṣyati॥ (Maha. Vana. Parv. 275.34)</blockquote>Ravana forcefully took away Kubera's Pushpaka vimana which deeply angered Kubera. Kubera curses Ravana saying "because of this disrespectful behaviour towards your elder brother, Pushpaka will not be of any use to you but will carry the person who kills you in a war." Thus was laid the foundation of elimination of Ravana for his misdeeds even prior to his abducting Sita.

== विराधस्य वृत्तान्तम्॥ Viradha's Story ==
Valmiki Ramayana describes the important episode of Viradha, a demon killed by ShriRama and Lakshmana, in the [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]]. Viradha takes away Sitadevi with his huge arms, seeing thus, Rama and Lakshmana cut his arms. Later he carries Rama and Lakshmana far away and eventually gets killed by them. Viradha, desirous to die in the hands of ShriRama briefly describes who he is and how he came to live in the Dandakaaranya. This episode occurs in Adhyatma Ramayana, Brahmanda Purana (Adhyaya 61) and Skanda Purana which describes it in detail.

Once Tumburu, a Gandharva, interested in the apsara named Rambha, neglected his services to Kubera and invited his wrath. Kubera angrily cursed him to become a rakshasa named Viradha. He later told him that when Rama kills him in a fight, he would regain his previous celestial body and then go to swarga.<ref>Valmiki Ramayana ([https://valmikiramayan.net/utf8/aranya/sarga4/aranya_4_frame.htm Aranya Kanda Sarga 4])</ref><blockquote>तुंबुरुः नाम गन्धर्वः शप्तो वैश्रवणेन हि || ३-४-१६ </blockquote><blockquote>tuṁburuḥ nāma gandharvaḥ śaptō vaiśravaṇēna hi || 3-4-16</blockquote><blockquote>प्रसाद्यमानः च मया सोऽब्रवीत् माम् महायशाः | यदा दाशरथी रमः त्वाम् वधिष्यति संयुगे || ३-४-१७</blockquote><blockquote>prasādyamānaḥ ca mayā sō'bravīt mām mahāyaśāḥ | yadā dāśarathī ramaḥ tvām vadhiṣyati saṁyugē || 3-4-17</blockquote><blockquote>तदा प्रकृतिम् आपन्नो भवान् स्वर्गम् गमिष्यति |अनुपस्थीयमानो माम् स क्रुद्धो व्याजहार ह || ३-४-१८</blockquote><blockquote>tadā prakr̥tim āpannō bhavān svargam gamiṣyati |anupasthīyamānō mām sa kruddhō vyājahāra ha || 3-4-18</blockquote><blockquote>इति वैश्रवणो राजा रंभ आसक्तम् उवाच ह | तव प्रसादान् मुक्तो अहम् अभिशापात् सु दारुणात् || ३-४-१९ (Valm. Rama. Aran. 4.3.16-19)</blockquote><blockquote>iti vaiśravaṇō rājā raṁbha āsaktam uvāca ha | tava prasādān muktō aham abhiśāpāt su dāruṇāt || 3-4-19</blockquote>Courtesy: Samskrit Shlokas of Mahabharata from Rashtriya Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Site.<ref>Mahabharata Project - [http://www.rsvidyapeetha.ac.in/mahabharatha/menu.html Main Page]</ref>
==References==
[[Category:Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Upakhyanas]]
<references />

Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा)

2021-01-15T13:42:39Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (Samskrit : भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा) or Bharat's Traditional Literary series of works include all major components of Bharatiya texts coming from a vast repository of Samskrit literature preserved through oral tradition as well as those in the form of manuscripts and other written formats. Samskrit literature can be classified under two headings viz., '''Vedas and''' '''Vaidika Sahitya''' consisting of ancient literature and '''Laukika Sahitya''' including the more recent classical samskrit works. The Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya is a collection of the authoritative texts of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]], while Laukika Sahitya embodies the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref>
==Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya ==
[[File:Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara.jpg|650x650px|
Classification of Samskrit Texts
|border|right]]
A whole body of texts are included under this heading:<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":2">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref>
#[[Shruti (श्रुतिः)|Shrutis]] also called Amnaya (आम्नाय) and Trayi (त्रयी) (Include [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]], Vedabhashyas, [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]], and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] example : Rigveda, Yajus samhita, Taittriya Brahmana, Brhdaranyaka, Chandogya Upanishad)
#Smritis (Include [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Vaidika Vangmaya]] such as [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]], Smritis or Dharmashastras, Puranas, Itihasa which are exclusive of the core Vaidika texts)
#Agamas (Example : Shaiva and Vaishnava Agamas)
#Darsanas (Astika Darshanas, example : [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]], Nyaya darshana)<ref name=":42222" />
Although the word Smrti is used in general to denote the non-Shruti literature, it is often used to refer to the Dharmashastras, which describe the code of conduct for everyone.<ref name=":42222" /> In the scope of the present project, word Smrti is used to represent the whole of the non-Shruti literature as well as specifically refer to Dharmashastras (Smrti granthas like Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti).

==Laukika Sahitya==
The classical literary writings include different types of writings classified variously :<ref name=":42222" />
#Mahakavyas (Poetry, example : Kalidasa Mahakavi's Raghuvamsha)
#Rupakas or Natakas (Drama, example : Mricchakatika, Pratimanataka)
#Alankara shastragranthas (Example : Kavyaprakasha, Dhvanyaloka)
#Gadya kavyas (Prose, example : Kadambari)
#Charitraka kavyas (Historical presentations, example : Rajatarangini)
#Champu kavyas (Mix of prose and poetry, example : Champu Ramayana)
#Katha kavyas (Stories, example : Brhatkatha, Kathasaritsagara)
#Nitikavyas (Didactic poetry, example : Panchatantra and Hitopadesha)
In Dharmawiki project, articles pertaining to the Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya are discussed while information pertaining to Laukika Sahitya is beyond the scope of this project (except for a few references) at present. A flowchart of the classification of Vaidika and Laukika Sahitya has been attempted with the sources of the material as given in the article.
==The Shrutis==
{{Main|Shruti_(श्रुतिः)}}The Vaidika texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, hence preserved over thousands of years. There are two classifications of Hindu texts: ''Shruti'' – that which is heard, and ''Smriti'' – that which is remembered. The supremacy of Vedas has been emphasized in Manusmrti as follows<blockquote>बिभर्ति सर्वभूतानि वेदशास्त्रं सनातनम् । तस्मादेतत्परं मन्ये यज्जन्तोरस्य साधनम् । । १२.९९ (Manu. Smrt. 12.99)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>bibharti sarvabhūtāni vedaśāstraṃ sanātanam । tasmādetatparaṃ manye yajjantorasya sādhanam । । 12.99 । ।</blockquote>Meaning: The eternal Veda shastra upholds or protects all beings (by being their flawless guideline). Those endeavoring for the welfare of all beings, regard Vedas as their supreme authoritative instrument in achieving it.

The Vedas are the foundational authority for the people who follow Sanatana Dharma and these four vedas are classified as Shruti texts.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><ref name=":22" />

[[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The Four Vedas]] are:
#[[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)]]
#[[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)]]
#[[Samaveda (सामवेदः)]]
#[[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)]]
The Vedas (include Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishads for each Veda) called Shrutis, are passed on to generations of students and are memorized by hearing the mantras from the guru (guru-shishya parampara). Rishis have received the Vedas through revelation and hence Vedas are considered to be ''[[Apauruseya|apauruṣeya]]'', or entirely superhuman, without any author.

[[Veda Vargeekarana (वेदवर्गीकरणम्)|Veda Vargeekarana]] or classification of the Vedas is extensive, for example Rig veda is divided in Astaka and Mandala Kramas. The Yajur Veda is divided into two parts - The Shukla and the Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittirya shaka is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya is a later revelation to sage [[Yagnyavalkya|Yajnavalkya]] from Surya. The Rig-Veda is divided into twenty one shakas, the Yajur Veda into one hundred and nine shakas, the Sama Veda into one thousand shakas and the Atharva Veda into fifty shakas. In all, the Veda is thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty shakas or recensions.<ref name=":022" />

Each Veda has been sub-classified in textual content again into four major text types<ref name=":022" />:
#The [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]] that comprise of mantras and benedictions.
#The [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]] that contain explanation of Mantras and rituals
#The [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] that are mystical texts which give philosophical interpretation of the rituals. These are intended for the Vanaprasthas or hermits, who prepare themselves for taking Sanyasa
#The [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] that discuss meditation, philosophy and adhyatmik knowledge.
The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda (कर्म खण्ड), Upasana-Kanda (उपासना खण्ड) and Jnana-Kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड). The Karma-Kanda or ritualistic section deals with various yajnas and associated kriyas. The Upasana-Kanda or worship-section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or knowledge-section deals with the knowledge of Brahman. The [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]] and the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]] constitute Karma-Kanda; the [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] Upasana-Kanda; and the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] Jnana-Kanda.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022" />

'''Main Components of Shrutis'''
====The Samhitas ====
{{Main|Samhita (संहिता)}}
Samhitas are primarily a collection of the mantras, Riks in Rigveda, Yajus of Yajurveda, Samans of the Samaveda and those of Atharvaveda. The '''Rig-Veda Samhita''' is the oldest sacred literary text of the Hindus. The '''Yajur-Veda Samhita''' is mostly in prose and explaining the procedures of the yajnas and yagas, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras. The '''Sama-Veda Samhita,''' shortest of all vedas, is mostly borrowed from Rig-Vedic Samhita sung with melody especially during the Soma yajnas. the '''Atharva-Veda Samhita''' is meant to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed during the yajnas. Atharvaveda contains mantras on many subjects such as socio-political aspects, medicine, agriculture etc along with philosophical thoughts.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":032222">Introduction to Samhitas in [http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/ Vedic Heritage Portal]</ref>

====The Brahmanas ====
{{Main|Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)}}
Brahmanas are injunctions or vidhis for the performance of shrauta yajnas.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref> Important with respect to the procedural aspects of Vaidika yajnas they explain the meaning and gudartha (hidden meanings) of the Samhita parts. They are that portion of the Vedas which apart from stating the vidhis, explain their origin and detailed explanation with illustrations in the form of legends and anecdotes, thus appear distinct from the "mantra" portions of the Samhitas.<ref name=":1">Sharma, Ram Murthy. (1987 2nd edition) ''Vaidik Sahitya ka Itihas'' Delhi : Eastern Book Linkers</ref>

While not many variations in the names and number of Brahmanas are seen for Rigveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, however, Samaveda associated with the highest number of Brahmanas, is opined to have some differences in number and names of Brahmanas, by scholars.

According to Swami Sivananda, six brahmanas : the Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa, the Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]].<ref name=":022" />

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy in Sanskruta Sahitya Charitra nine Brahmanas are mentioned Tandya, Shadvimsha, Samavidhana, Arsheya, Devataradhya, Upanishad, Samhitopanishad, Vamsha, and Jaiminiya Brahmanas.<ref name=":42222" />

According to Shri. Shriram Adhikari (Vedic Heritage Portal), eight Brahmanas for Samaveda are available as given in the above list except that he lists Chandogya-Upanishad brahmana and instead of Upanishad brahmana and Jaiminiya brahmana is missing.<ref name=":22222">Adhikari, Shriram Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_16.pdf Samaved ka parichay evam vaisishtya]'' from Vedic Heritage Portal</ref> Dr Shashi Tiwari lists two Brahmanas in addition to the 9 listed by Dr. Gopal Reddy, as JaiminiyaArsheya Brahmana and Jaiminiyopanishad Brahmana making it a total of 11 Brahmanas available for Samaveda.<ref>Dr. Shashi Tiwari, Sanskrit Department, Delhi University in the ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/# Introduction of Brahmanas]'' (Vedic Heritage Portal)</ref>
==== The Aranyakas ====
{{Main|Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)}}
Each of the Vedas are associated with an Aranyaka except Atharvaveda. Usually Aranyakas are present as the concluding part of the Brahmanas, however, due to the non-availability of Aranyakas for Atharvaveda, Upanishads stand as independent works in this veda. Aranyakas and Upanishads are like the ''parishistas'' (appendices) to the Brahmanas.

Aranyakas are said to be those texts to be studied by people in their vanaprastha ashrama, living a life of seclusion in the forests. Subject material of Aranyakas consists of the partly modified versions of yajnas and vratas apart from the adhyatmik matters. These tattvas and theosophical matters are extensively elaborated in the Upanishads. Karma and Jnana margas appear to be balanced in the Aranyakas. Upasana (meditation), Brahmavidya along with the Pranavidya (Knowledge of Breath), details of origin of sristi, meditation on Pranava are described elaborately so that the residents of the forest can practice them in the quiet solitude of the forests. The number of Aranyakas was once said to be 130, but now many are lost.<ref name=":42222" /><ref>Dr. Shashi Tiwari, Sanskrit Department, Delhi University on ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/aranyakas/ Introduction to Aranyakas]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal</ref>

The different brahmanas and Aranyakas associated with different veda shakas are listed in the table below.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022" /><ref name=":0">Raghunathacharya, S. B. (1985) ''Arshavijnana Sarvasvamu, Volume 2 : Brahmanalu (Telugu)'' Tirupati : Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Brahmanas and Aranyakas Available in Present Days<ref name=":0" />
! rowspan="2" |RigVeda
! colspan="2" |Yajurveda
! rowspan="2" |Samaveda
! rowspan="2" |Adharvaveda
|-
|'''Krishna'''
|'''Shukla'''
|-
|
# ऐतरेय ॥ Aitereya Brahmana
# कौषीतकी ॥ Kaushitaki or Sankhyayana (शाङ्खायन) Brahmana<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":22" />
|
# तैत्तिरीय ॥Taittriya Brahmana
# मैत्रायणी ॥ Maitrayani Brahmana<ref name=":022" />
|
# माध्यन्दिन-शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Madhyandina Shatapatabrahmana
# काण्व-शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Kanva Shatapatabrahmana
|
# जैमिनीय॥ Jaiminiya(Talavakara तलवकार)
# ताण्ड्य ॥Tandya (Panchavimsha, Mahabrahmana or Praudha)
# छान्दोग्य ॥ Chandogya (Mantra)
# सामविधान॥ Samavidhana
# देवताध्याय॥ Devataradhaya
# वंशब्राह्मणम् ॥ Vamsha
# संहितोपनिषद्॥ Samhitopanishad
|
# गोपथब्राह्मणम् ॥ Gopatha Brahmana
|-
|
# ऐतरेय ॥ Aiterya Aranyanka
# शाङ्खायन ॥Sankhyayana Aranyaka<ref name=":42222" />
|
# तैत्तिरीय ॥Taittriya Aranyaka
# मैत्रायणी ॥ Maitrayani Aranyaka
|
# माध्यन्दिन-बृहदारण्यकम् ॥ Madhyandina Brhadaranyaka
# काण्व-बृहदारण्यकम् ॥ Kanva Brhadaranyaka
|
# जैमिनीय॥Jaiminiya (Talavakara) Aranyaka
# छान्दोग्य ॥ Chandogya Aranyaka<ref name=":42222" />
|None available
|}

====The Upanishads====
{{Main|Upanishads (उपनिषदः)}}The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Aranyakas, and thus last portions of the Vedas, the mukhya upanishads being essentially difficult to be separated from their Aranyakas. The teaching based on them is called [[Vedanta]]. For example, Aiteraya Upanishad is the parishista of Aiteraya Brahmana of Rigveda.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":1" />

Etymologically the name Upanishad has been variously interpreted. The form of teaching was that of the dialogues transmitted orally, hence they are also included in Shrutis. Significant feature is that no authorship has been recorded and Upanishads are regarded as revelations to seers. Upanishads have been regarded as one among the Prasthana Trayi, the other two included are Brahmasutras and Bhavagad Gita.

The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishads]], and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name="ptraju22">Poola, Tirupati Raju (1985), ''Structural Depths of Bharat's Thought.'' USA: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36</ref> The Upanishads are the very foundation of the siddhantas and tattvas of Sanatana Dharma applicable to man in every walk of life philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of all the texts included in Vaidika Vangmaya, Upanishads have been widely studied by many people of the world, and in the present day the theosophical ideas and vidyas that have been discussed in the Upanishads have made a great impression on mankind. Thus Upanishads throw light on Brahmavidya, aid in destroying the Avidya of Mumukshus (persons interested in attaining Moksha) causing attainment of Moksha or Brahmaloka by removing the three kinds of Dukha (pain).<ref name=":42222" />

There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recensions, i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas, the [[Rigveda|Rig-Veda]] the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]], the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]] and the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]].<ref name=":022" />

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads from the Vedantic point of view. The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]]'' and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. Muktikopanishad and Narayanopanishad lists 108 Upanishads and of them Dasa-Upanishads are <blockquote>ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरः । ऐतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं तथा ॥ īśa-kēna-kaṭha-praśna-muṇḍa-māṇḍūkya-tittiraḥ । ēētarēyaṁ ca chāndōgyaṁ br̥hadāraṇyakaṁ tathā ॥</blockquote>
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
*[[Isavasyopanishad]]
*[[Kenopanishad]]
*[[Kathopanishad]]
*[[Prasnopanishad]]
*[[Mundakopanishad]]
*[[Mandukyopanishad]]
*[[Taittriya Upanishad]]
*[[Aitareya Upanishad]]
*[[Chandogya Upanishad]]
*[[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] }}
Besides these Shvetashvatara, Kaushitaki and Maitrayaniya Upanishads are also listed as older ones. Shri Adi Shankaracharya has given bhashyam (commentary) for these ten principal Upanishads and has mentioned about Kaushitaki and Shvetasvatara Upanishads in his writings, though he did not write the bhasyam for these two Upanishads. These 13 Upanishads are based on the ancient vedic sources and advocate the tattava of Vedanta. The many other Upanishads that are currently available have arisen based on the particular sampradayas, thus we find mainly Shaiva, Vaishnava, Yoga and Shakteya Upanishads. The older Upanishads describe the places starting from Kuru, Panchala upto Videha indicating their place of origin. It is to be noted that in place of the many Vaidika devatas we find mention more of Brahman or Parabrahman (nirakara), showing the unity of divinity. Ancient (prachina) Upanishads mention Prkruti, Purusha and Brahma while the more recent (arvachina) Upanishads mention the deities Vishnu or Shiva and so forth.<ref name=":42222" />

==The Smrtis==
{{Main|Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)}}The word Smrti is used in two senses. In a broad sense, is applied to all ancient non-Vedic works such as Panini's grammar, to the Shrauta, Grhya and dharma sutras, to Mahabharata, to Manu, Yajnavalkya and others. In a narrow sense, smrti and dharmashastras are synonyms as quoted by Manu (2.10). The word Smrti, however, occurs in Taittriya Aranyaka (1.2).<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1 Anuvaka 2])</ref> with respect to Dharma, is also referred by Gautama (Dharmasutras 1.2) and Vasishta (Dharmasutras 1.4) who cite Smrtis as the sources of dharma.<ref name=":5" />

Smrti literature includes that 'which is remembered', covering all the texts other than the Vedas.<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":02222" /> According to Dr. Gopal Reddy they broadly include the following<ref name=":42222" />
* '''Shad Vedangas''' (Shiksha, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Kalpa, Jyotisha)
* '''Veda-Upangas''' (Puranas, Itihasa, Dharmashastras or Smrti granthas, Mimamsa and Nyaya shastras). Some scholars consider all the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]] as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref>
* '''Upavedas''' (Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda, Arthashastra)
* '''Nitishastra''' (Dandaniti shastra)
A clear cut definition is not given as what all constitute the Smrti texts. There is a difference in the way the texts are classified by different scholars. Pratisakhyas, Anukramanikas and the more recent Nibandhas are also included under this broad category of Smrtis.

===The Shad Vedangas===
{{Main|Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)}}Vedangas are six topics, the study of which are required for the complete understanding of the Vedas. Each of these subjects are given by different seers, developed for the understanding of a student. The Six Angas are as follows :
#[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]] is a knowledge of phonetics. Shiksha deals with pronunciation and accent. The text of the Vedas are arranged in various forms or Pathas (पाठ-s). The Padapatha (पदपाठः) gives each word its separate form. The Kramapatha (क्रमपाठः) connects the word in pairs.<ref name=":022" /> Pratisakhyas are the angas of Shiksha granthas.
#[[Chandas (छन्दस्)|Chandas]] is the knowledge of meters. This auxiliary discipline lays its focus on the metrical construction of vedic mantras and poetic meters, including those based on the number of syllables per mantra and those based on the duration of pronunciation of syllables in a mantra.
#[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]] is the knowledge of construction of words or grammar. This auxiliary discipline has focused on the rules of grammar and siddhiprakriya (सिद्धिप्रक्रिया | the process of deriving a word), so as to establish the exact form of words and sentences to properly express ideas.
#[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]] gives the vyutpatti-artha (व्युत्पत्ति-अर्थ | etymology), explaining words, particularly those which are archaic and have a different ancient vedic usage with uncommon meaning. This auxiliary discipline has focused on developing a [[Nighantu]] which is a dictionary that has a collection of vedic usages. These words are analysed to establish the proper meaning of the words according to the context used in vedas.
#[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotish]] deals with astronomy and astrology. It deals with the movements of the heavenly bodies, planets, etc., and their influence in human affairs.<ref name=":022" /> This auxiliary Vedic discipline focused on time keeping.
#[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]] are the texts that deal with the methods of [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajna]] and other rituals composed in Sutra format. This field focused on standardizing procedures for Vedic Shrauta rituals, Smarta rituals associated with [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]] - major life events such as birth, wedding and death in family, as well as discussing [[Dharma (धर्मः)|dharmas]] laid down for the personal conduct and proper duties of an individual in different stages of his life.Sutras under this category include :
##Shrauta Sutras describe the procedures of [[Shrauta Yajnas (श्रौतयज्ञाः)|Shrauta yajnas]] as per the veda shaka. Example : Haviryajnas, Somayajnas
##Grhya Sutras describe the procedures of Grhya yajnas pertaining to veda shakas. Example : Pakayajnas, [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|Panchamahayajnas]]
##Dharma Sutras describe the rules pertaining to the [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|Varna-Ashrama Dharmas]] (Smarta Karmas). Example : Baudhayana Dharmasutras, Apastamba Dharmasutras
##Sulba Sutras describe the mathematical and geometrical aspects of the construction of the vedic altars. Example : Baudhayana and Apastamba Sulbasutras<ref name=":22" />
===The Upavedas===
{{Main|Upavedas (उपवेदाः)}}According to Vishnupurana there are four Upa-Vedas or subsidiary Vedas, viz., the [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], the [[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)|Dhanurveda]], the [[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)|Gandharva Veda]] and the [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Artha Shastra]] forming auxiliaries to the four Vedas<ref name=":3">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref>. Some scholars consider Sthapatya Veda as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":2" />. Sthapatya Veda or Shilpa Veda deals with the science of architectural engineering.

The Upavedas supplement the Vedas with more specific applications of Vedic teachings into the cultural field.
{| class="wikitable"
!S. No.
!Upaveda Name
!Concerned with
!Associated with Veda
|-
|1
|Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)
|Shastra dealing with health and prevention of diseases
|Rig Veda
|-
|2
|Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)
|Shastra dealing with archery, warfare
|Yajurveda
|-
|3
|Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)
|Music and dance
|Sama Veda
|-
|4
|Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)
|Public administration, governance, economy and polity
|Atharvaveda
|}
===The Dharmashastras or Smrti Granthas===
In a more specific sense Smrtis are ancient law-codes dealing with the sanatana [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|Varnashrama Dharmas]] given by seers. They supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. The Smriti Shastra is based on the Sruti and stands next in authority to the Sruti. It explains and develops Dharma. Manusmrti explains that Shrutis comprise the Vedas, while Smrtis include the Dharmashastras.<ref name=":5" /> <blockquote>श्रुतिस्तु वेदो विज्ञेयो धर्मशास्त्रं तु वै स्मृतिः । śrutistu vedo vijñeyo dharmaśāstraṁ tu vai smr̥tiḥ । (Manu. Smrt. 2.10)<ref>Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>It lays down the laws which regulate (Hindu) national, social, family and individual obligations. The laws for regulating society from time to time are codified in the Smritis. The Smritis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide the individuals and communities in their daily conduct and to regulate their manners and customs. They contain detailed instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes of men regarding their duties in life. The Hindu learns how one has to spend his whole life from these Smritis. The duties of people in different Varnashramas and all ceremonies are clearly given in these books<ref name=":022" /><ref>R. Suresha, (2009) Ph. D Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/132380/8/08_chapter%202.pdf Learning systems in Ancient Sanskrit - A Critical Study.]'' Mangalore University</ref>.

The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":022" /><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Number of Smritis ====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti]], Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.
* Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
* Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
* Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
* Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
* Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, howevever, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5" /> <blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}
According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji, <ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part15/chap2.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

According to Swami Sivananda<ref name=":022" />, the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":022" />
=== The Nitishastra (Dandaniti) ===
In Mahabharata's Shantiparva we find the mention of Dandaniti shastra given to the world by Brahma, which is a text said to comprise of 100,000 adhyayas expounding the purusharthas and achieving them.
<blockquote> दण्डनीत्यां प्रणीतायां सर्वे सिद्ध्यन्त्युपक्रमाः। कौन्तेय सर्वभूतानां तत्र मे नास्ति संशयः॥ 1 (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.29)</blockquote><blockquote>daṇḍanītyāṁ praṇītāyāṁ sarve siddhyantyupakramāḥ। kaunteya sarvabhūtānāṁ tatra me nāsti saṁśayaḥ॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.29)</blockquote><blockquote>दण्डश्चेन्न भवेल्लोके विनश्येयुरिमाः प्रजाः। जले मत्स्यानिवाभक्ष्यन्दुर्बलान्बलवत्तराः॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.30)</blockquote><blockquote>daṇḍaścenna bhavelloke vinaśyeyurimāḥ prajāḥ। jale matsyānivābhakṣyandurbalānbalavattarāḥ॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.30)</blockquote><blockquote>चातुर्वर्ण्यप्रमोदाय सुनीतिनयनाय च। दण्डो विधात्रा विहितो धर्मार्थौ भुवि रक्षितुम्॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.35)</blockquote><blockquote>cāturvarṇyapramodāya sunītinayanāya ca। daṇḍo vidhātrā vihito dharmārthau bhuvi rakṣitum॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.15.35)</blockquote>Summary: In Vaisampayana's instruction of rajaniti to Arjuna, he stresses that with the appropriate application of Dandaniti (दण्डनीतिः) all the beings of all worlds will be alert to conduct themselves appropriately. If not so, all the creatures will perish and just like the big fish eats the small fish, a stronger person will harm a weaker person. Brahma created this system for the happiness of the people of the four varnas and that everyone follows niti for the protection of both dharma and artha (money).<ref>Pt. Ramnarayandatt Shastri, ''[https://archive.org/stream/Mahabharata04SanskritHindiPanditRamnarayanGitaPress/Mahabharata05_Sanskrit-hindi_panditRamnarayan_gitaPress#page/n53/mode/1up Mahabharata by Maharshi Vedavyasa , Volume 5, Shanti Parva.]'' Gorakhpur : Gita Press</ref>

Later on, Shiva, condensed them into a text called "Vaisalaksha (वैशालाक्ष)" with 10,000 adhyayas. Indra further condensed this shastra to a comprehensive text called "Bahudantakashastra (बाहुदन्तक-शास्त्रम्). Sukracharya further condensed it to a 1000 adhyayas and named the text as "Aushanasaniti (औशनसनीतिः) or Shukraniti (शुक्रनीतिः). This story in Mahabharata indicates that the base text is the same Dandanitishastra grantha, which underwent changes over a time period. Dandaniti shastra describes Arthashastra, Rajaniti, Social aspects, Shilpashastra, and even Rasayana shastra.<ref name=":42222" />

===The Puranas ===
{{Main|Puranas (पुराणानि)}}The Puranas as a class of literature existed from very ancient times. For example, Taittriya Aranyaka (2.10) speaks of 'Brahmanas, Itihasas, Puranas and Narasamshi gathas. Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya Upanishad, Gautama dharmasutras, Skandapurana, Bhagavata purana and other texts also refer to the Puranas. Mahabharata (Vana. Parv. 191.6) speaks of the Purana given by Vayu (Vayupurana).<ref name=":5" />
The Puranas were written to bring the the teachings of the Vedas closer to the common man. They contain the essence of the Vedas.<blockquote>सर्व वेदार्थ साराणि पुराणानि । sarva vēdārtha sārāṇi purāṇāni । (Nara. Pura. 1.9.100)</blockquote>The Puranas have five characteristics (Pancha-Lakshana) viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings and of Manvantaras.

All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Sammitas (सुहृत्-सम्मित) or Mitra-sammita (मित्र-सम्मित). Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.

The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to deities and celestial beings, through concrete examples, stories, legends, lives of rishis, rajas, maharajas and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events. The seers made use of these to illustrate the eternal principles of religion. The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand deep philosophy and who could not study the Vedas.

The Darshanas propound complex and abstract thoughts which cannot be easily grasped. They are meant only for the learned few. Through Puranas, essential teachings are taught in a very easy and interesting way. Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain the history of remote times. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting to read and are full of information of all kinds.<ref name=":022" /> Early commentators namely, Apararka, Ballalasena and Hemadri profusely quote the Puranas as the sources of dharma. Topics like [[Shraddha (श्राद्धम्)|Shraddha]], Vratas, danas, shanti karmas, tirthas, rajadharmas are predominantly seen in the Matsya Purana. So also in the Vishnupurana, [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varnashramadharmas]], [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|panchamahayajnas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], nitya and naimittika karmas are extensively described.<ref name=":5" />

====The Eighteen Mahapuranas ====
There are eighteen MahaPuranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. Vishnupurana (3.6.20 - 24) details the 18 Mahapuranas as follows<ref name=":3" />:{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Brahma Purana]]
* [[Padma Purana]]
* [[Vishnu Purana]]
* [[Siva Purana]]
* [[Bhagavata Purana]]
* [[Narada Purana]]
* [[Markandeya Purana]]
* [[Agni Purana]]
* [[Bhavishya Purana]]
* [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]
* [[Linga Purana]]
* [[Varaha Purana]]
* [[Skanda Purana]]
* [[Vamana Purana]]
* [[Kurma Purana]]
* [[Matsya Purana]]
* [[Garuda (Suparna) Purana]]
* [[Brahmanda Purana]]
}}Padmapurana and Matsyapurana (Adhyaya 53<ref>Matsya Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 53])</ref>) mentions about the division of Sattvic Puranas (six), in praise of Vishnu (mokshaprada) are Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma and Varaha puranas. Six, in praise of Sarasvati and Brahma (svargaprada) are Rajasic, they include Brahma, Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Vamana. Six in praise of Shiva are Tamasic and they include Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Shiva, Skanda, Agni puranas.

==== Upapuranas ====
The Upa-puranas are similar in content to the 18 mahapuranas and they are written by many different seers.
: आद्यं सनत्कुमारोक्तं नारसिंहमथापरम् ॥ १,२२३.१७ ॥ तृतीयं स्कान्दमुद्दिष्टं कुमारेण तु भाषितम् । चतुर्थं शिवधर्माख्यं स्यान्नन्दीश्वरभाषितम् ॥ १,२२३.१८ ॥ दुर्वाससोक्तमाश्चर्यं नारदोक्तमतः परम् । कापिलं वामनञ्चैव तथैवोशनसेरितम् ॥ १,२२३.१९ ॥ ब्रह्माण्डं वारुणञ्चाथ कालिकाह्वयमेव च । माहेश्वरं तथा साम्बमेवं सर्वार्थसञ्चयम् । पराशरोक्तमपरं मारीचं भार्गवाह्वयम् ॥ १,२२३.२० ॥ पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रञ्च वेदास्त्वङ्गानि यन्मुने । (Garu. Pura. 1.223.17-20)<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
:ādyaṁ sanatkumārōktaṁ nārasiṁhamathāparam ॥ 1,223.17 ॥ tr̥tīyaṁ skāndamuddiṣṭaṁ kumārēṇa tu bhāṣitam । caturthaṁ śivadharmākhyaṁ syānnandīśvarabhāṣitam ॥ 1,223.18 ॥ durvāsasōktamāścaryaṁ nāradōktamataḥ param । kāpilaṁ vāmanañcaiva tathaivōśanasēritam ॥ 1,223.19 ॥ brahmāṇḍaṁ vāruṇañcātha kālikāhvayamēva ca । māhēśvaraṁ tathā sāmbamēvaṁ sarvārthasañcayam । parāśarōktamaparaṁ mārīcaṁ bhārgavāhvayam ॥ 1,223.20 ॥ purāṇaṁ dharmaśāstrañca vēdāstvaṅgāni yanmunē । (Garu. Pura. 1.223.17-20)
According to Garuda Purana, Upapuranas include Sanathkumara, Narasimha, Skanda, Shivadharma, Ascharya purana, Narada, Nandi purana, Kapila, Vamana, Ushana, Brahmanda, Varuna, Kalika, Maheshvara, Samba, Parashara, Maricha, Bhargava puranas.

According to Swami Sivananda the Upa-puranas are: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa, Mudgala, and Hamsa. The Ganesa and Mudgala Puranas are sectarian Upapuranas devoted to Ganesha.<ref name=":022" />

Thus, Upapuranas are said to be more recent, having names similar to those in Mahapuranas and deal not only with Shiva and Vishnu but also Surya, Shakti, Ganapati deities.<ref name=":7">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>

==== Puranas Vs Sthala Puranas ====
Puranas are large ancient texts, included in the Chaturdasha vidyas different from the sthalapuranas which are not classified so. Sthalapuranas narrate the local legends and stories connected with a certain tirtha or temple (the word `Sthala` means `Place` in Samskrit). There are numerous Sthala Puranas, some having legends associated with locals in that place, some with references in samskrit literature. Many such local anecdotes and some of the Samskrit versions also appear in a Mahapurana or an Upapurana. Examples : Story of Bhakta Kannappa associated with Shiva temple in Srisailam (association of a local legend). Srisailam has a puranic references as one of the Jyotirlingas. Gokarna temple has the puranic legend of Shivalinga pratisha done by Ravanasura.

===The Itihasas===
{{Main|Itihasas}}Referred to as Epics, there are two books under this heading generally accepted by the scholars:
#Ramayana
#Mahabharata
These two epics embody all that is in the Vedas, but only in a simpler manner. These also belong to the category of Suhrit-Sammitas or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are called the Prabhu-Sammitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.

These works explain the great universal truths in the form of historical narratives, stories and dialogues. These are very interesting volumes and are liked by all, from the inquisitive child to the intellectual scholar and have kept the Dharmik traditions alive through the ages of invasion and turmoil in Bharatavarsha. The Itihasas give us beautiful stories of absorbing interest and importance, through which all the fundamental teachings of Sanatana Dharma are impressed on one's mind. The laws of Smritis and the principles of the Vedas are stamped firmly on the minds of the people of Bharatavarsha through the noble and marvellous deeds of their great national heroes. We get a clear idea of Dharmas from these sublime stories. The awe-inspiring Brahman or Purusha expressed in high abstract philosophy of the Upanishads, Vedanta and the Brahma Sutras were brought closer to the educationists, warriors, a businessman, a farmer in the fields in an way intelligible to all of them. Hence, the compassionate seers Valmiki and Vyasa wrote the Itihasas for the benefit of common people. The same philosophy is presented with analogies and parables in a tasteful form to the common run of mankind.<ref name=":022" />
====Ramayana and Mahabharata====
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful Sastras of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.<ref name=":024" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref name=":7" />
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}
====Ramayana====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic.

The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Bharat's Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual seva (सेवा | selfless service). Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022" /> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]], Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

==== पञ्चमवेदः ॥ Panchamaveda ====
Though the general agreement about the number of vedas is four, there are instances in literature about Panchamaveda. However, in [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four vedas]] the language and format of the writings are different from that of the Puranas and Itihasas which are called the Panchamaveda. Skanda Purana and Bhagavata purana<ref name=":03">Shrimad Bhagavata Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Skanda 1 Adhyaya 4])</ref><ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref> mention that Puranas and Itihasa constitute Panchamaveda while Bhavishya purana states that Mahabharata is called Panchamaveda<ref>Upadhyaya, Baburam. (2012) ''[https://archive.org/stream/BhavishyaPuranaWithHindiTranslationPart1BaburamUpadhyaya2012/Bhavishya%20Purana%20with%20Hindi%20Translation%20Part%201%20-%20Baburam%20Upadhyaya%202012#page/n68 Bhavishya Mahapurana with Hindi Translation Volume 1 Brahmaparva.]'' Prayag : Hindi Sahitya Sammelan</ref>

=== Darshana Shastras ===
The ancient Bharat's thought process, the tattvas and siddhantas related to Sanatana Dharma are deeply dealt with in the six views or systems called as Shad Darshanas. Based on the Vedic knowledge, they are all designed to lead man to the One Science, the One Wisdom, which saw One Self as Real (Truth or Satya). They along with the Vedas and other Vaidika vangmaya are however classified as Apara vidya leading one to know the One Self (Atman) through the experience of Self which was called Para vidya. Since these shastras are founded accepting the authority of the Vedas they are called Astika darshanas. They are best understood when seen in relation with each other, thus revealing their Unity rather than when seen in opposition. The six Astika Darshanas or [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]] are<ref name=":024" /> {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Mimamsa Darshana (मीमांसदर्शनम्)]]
* [[Vedanta Darshana (वेदान्तदर्शनम्)]]
}}Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the [[Shastra Shikshana Paddhati (शास्त्रशिक्षणपद्धतिः)|shastra shikshana paddhati]] or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds
* Adhyatmika
* Adibhautika
* Adidaivika
The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
* Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
* Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
* Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024" /><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information of the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|Nyaya Darshana
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|Vaiseshika Darshana
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|Samkhya Darshana
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|Mimamsa Darshana
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti

Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita Sri Shankaracharya) Vishishtadvaita Sri Ramanujacharya)
Dvaita (Sri Madhavacharya)
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

===Agamas===
Agamas are a special class of literature, which include theological treatises and practical manuals of devata aradhana (worship) which have also been handed down through a succession of teachers from the ancient times.<ref>J. Padmamalini, (2015) Ph. D Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/185281 Sri Prasanna Venkateswara Swamy Temple of Appalayagunta An Agamic Study]'' Tirupati : Sri Venkateswara University</ref><ref>S, Veerabhadra.(2016) Ph. D Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/185339 Vishnu Iconography in Andhra During the Vijayanagara period.]'' Tirupati : Sri Venkateswara University.</ref> However, Agama shastras are not part of the Vedas (which are also called Nigamas), and do not derive their authority directly from the Vedas neither are they antagonistic to Vedas. They are, in fact, vedic in spirit and character and use the veda mantras while performing the services. The Vedas explicitly do not discuss about pratima aradhana (murti or vigraha worship). Agama texts support the view that Japa, Homa, Dhyana and Archa are the four methods to approach the divine and of these, the Agamas are based on Archa (worship). They describe primarily the procedure and rituals of deity worship, rather lay down the rules for a devata vigraha to be worship-worthy, thus are related to devata vigraha (imagery and iconography) and devalaya nirmana (temple construction).<ref name=":6">Saligrama Krishna Ramachandra Rao. ''[http://ipindiaservices.gov.in/GI_DOC/427/427%20-%20GI%20-%20Agama%20Shastra%20and%20Temple%20Worship%20-%2025-06-2013.pdf Agama Shastra and Temple Worship.]'' Extract from : The agama Encyclopaedia 12 Vols.; Revised Edition of Agama Kosa</ref><blockquote>''The icon and its form, the temple and its structure, the rituals and their details, thus get interrelated.'' <ref name=":6" /></blockquote>They also give elaborate details about ontology and cosmology, liberation, devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras, mystic diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making, domestic observances, social rules, public festivals, etc.<ref name=":022" />

Agama is essentially a tradition (congregational, worship carried out in full public view) and Tantra is a technique (individualistic, carried out in quiet privacy, with self discipline and intensity), but both have similar ideology. Temple worship includes both Agama and Tantric worship sequences; several of them involving the devotees, while the tantric sequences are conducted by priests in the sanctum sanctorum away from public gaze. Agama worship methods of devatas include the rituals (Tantras), verbal chanting (Mantras) and through symbolic charts (Yantras). All the Agamas deal with 4 padas
# Jnana (Knowledge) includes the theological and adhyatmik aspects
# Yoga (Meditation) for mental discipline
# Kriya (Esoteric Ritual) lays the rules for temple construction and pratishta (consecration of deity)
# Charya (Ways of Worship) pertain to observing the achara vidhis (rituals) and festivals
The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, the Saiva and the Sakta. The three chief sects of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktism, base their doctrines and dogmas on their respective Agamas.<ref name=":022" /> The term Agama is used for the Vaishnava and Shaiva traditions, while those related to Shakti were termed as Tantric.
====The Vaishnava Agamas ====
The Vaishnava Agamas are primarily of two kinds:<ref name=":022" />
#Vaikhanasa
#Pancharatra
The Brahma, Saiva Kaumara, Vasishtha, Kapila, Gautamiya and the Naradiya section of the Santi-Parva of the Mahabharata is the earliest source of information about the Pancharatras.

Vishnu is the Supreme Lord and the Pancharatra Agamas are believed to be revealed by Sri Mahavishnu Himself.
====The Saiva Agamas ====
Less formal than the Vaishnavas, the Shaivas recognize twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Kamika. The Agamas are the basis of Kashmir Saivism which is called the Pratyabhijna system. The latter works of Pratyabhijna system show a distinct leaning to Advaitism. The Southern Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agamas as their authority, besides the Vedas. Shiva is the central deity in the Shaiva Agamas and they hold that the Ishana mukham of Shiva revealed the 28 agamas, while the other four faces of Shiva, namely Tatpurusha, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata revealed the four vedas. The 28 Agamas are placed in two categories :
* Shivabheda Agamas are ten in number
* Rudrabheda Agamas are eighteen in number<ref name=":022" /><ref>M. Arunachalam, (1983) [https://archive.org/details/TheSaivagamas The Saivagamas.] Madras : Kalakshetra Publications Press. </ref>

====The Sakta Agamas ====
There is another group of scriptures known as the '''Tantras'''. They belong to the Sakta cult. They glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They dwell on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God and prescribe numerous courses of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother in various forms. There are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in some respects. The texts are usually in the form of dialogues between Siva and Parvati. In some of these, Siva answers the questions put by Parvati, and in others, Parvati answers, Siva questioning. Mahanirvana, Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, Vishnu-Yamala and Todala Tantra are the important works.<ref name=":022" />

== Sampradayas ==
The Vedic vision encompasses all fields of knowledge as everything and everyone is integral part of the Supreme. There are practically innumerable branches of the main three schools (Advaita, Vishistadvaita and Dvaita), called Sampradayas, generally categorized as Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, and Smarta. These schools have developed independent literature over time after the particular preceptors who started or advocated the concepts.<ref name=":022" />

A Sampradaya is an ideological tradition in which a founder called as Acharya lays down some principles based mostly on the theological and darshanic concepts from Vedas and Vaidika vangmaya. These teachings are transmitted faithfully by his students who in turn became teachers after absorbing those principles and practices to perfection, self-realization and mastery. Any established set of theory and associated practices, forms a particular school of thought of the founder called as a Sampradaya and a traditional lineage of teachers from any Sampradaya is called Parampara. This concept applies at various levels and constitutes the basis of religious Institutions (or Mathas) founded by great Acharyas, and also the heritage of high level family traditions in the Hindu concept. <ref name=":8">Parama Karuna Devi, (2009) ''Puri, The Home of Lord Jagannatha.'' Puri :Jagannatha Vallabha Research Center</ref>

We see since vedic period, often these two (religious affiliation and family descendence) are highly interconnected as Vedic knowledge makes no difference between son and pupil. Many times we see the student is mentioned in the rishi's lineage. In the case of religious affiliation, a disciple approaches a Sampradaya because he is attracted by the particular teachings, beliefs and practices characteristic to that tradition, and therefore accepts to become integrated into the system.

Sampradayas mostly have a diksha procedure, a formal initiation further to which a strict adherence to the instructions and a specific check-and-balance system ensures that the disciple follows the beliefs of the tradition thereby sustaining it. The current teacher has the right and duty to train the aspirant disciples as required, and will endorse them only when they have demonstrated the appropriate realizations in theory and practice, according to the various levels and positions in the Institution. Such endorsement comes in the form of appointment in various positions as preachers, leaders, and initiating teachers. Sampradayas may be classified based on the deities<ref name=":8" />
* SrimahaVishnu : Vaishnava Sampradayas have the greatest number of subsects.
* Shiva : Shaivite Sampradaya
* Devi : (Durga, Lakshmi, Saraswati) called Shakta Sampradaya
* Ganesh : Ganapatyas
* Skanda : Kaumaras
* Suryas : Sauras

==Laukika Sahitya==
These writings are extensive and a few important of them have been discussed as follows<ref name=":022" />
===The Kavyas===
These are highly scholarly compositions in poetry, prose or both. The greatest of poetical Kavyas are those of Kalidas (The Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhav), Bharavi (The Kiratarjuniya), Magha (The Sisupalavadha), Sri Harsha (The Naishadha). The best prose Kavyas in the whole of Sanskrit literature were written by Bhattabana (The Kadambari and Harshacharita). Among those containing both poetry and prose, the Champu-Ramayana and the Champu-Bharata are most famous.
===The Natakas===
These are marvellously scholastic dramas embodying the Rasas of Sringara, Vira, Karuna, Adbhuta, Hasya, Bhayanaka, Vibhatsa and Raudra. The best dramas are written by Kalidasa (Sakuntala), Bhavabhuti (Uttara Rama-Charit), and Visakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).
===The Alankaras===
The Alankaras are the grand rhetorical texts, that highlight the science of perfection and beauty of ornamental language, and of effective composition with elegance and force, both in poetry and in prose. These are the fundamentals of Sanskrit Sahitya, even superior to the Kavyas and the Natakas. The best Alankara-Granthas are those of Mammata (Kavyaprakasa) and Jagannatha (Rasagangudhara).
===The Subhashitas===
The Subhashitas are wise sayings, instructions and stories, either in poetry or in prose. Examples are Bhartrihari's three centuries of verses, the Subhashita-Ratna-Bhandagara and Somadeva Bhatta's Katha-Sarit-Sagara or Kshemendra's Brihat-Katha-Manjari. The Panchatantra and the Hitopadesa also belong to this category.

== Verses and Meanings ==
Vishnupurana (3.6.20 - 24) details the 18 Mahapuranas as follows<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते । ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा ।। २० ।।</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē । brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā ।। 20 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।। २१ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।। 21 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम् । वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चात्र त्रयोदशम् ।। २२ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivartaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam । vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcātra trayōdaśam ।। 22 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम् । मात्स्यञ्च गारुड़ञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततः परम ।। २३ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam । mātsyañca gāruḍa़ñcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥ parama ।। 23 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। २४ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। 24 ।।</blockquote>

==References==
<references />
[[Category:About Dharmawiki]]

Garuda (गरुडः)

2021-01-15T13:42:36Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

{{ToBeEdited}}

Garuda (Samskrit : गरुडः) is the son of Rshi Kashyapa and his wife Vinata. Aruna, the charioteer of the Sun, is said to be his elder brother. Considered sovereign among the feathered race and an implacable enemy of the serpents, Garuda is the vahana (mount) of Mahavishnu and is represented as having a white face, curved nose, red wings and a golden body.<ref>Kulapati Jibananda Vidyasagara (1900), Shabda Sagara, First Edition, Entry: [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.195943/page/n237 Garuda] </ref> [https://archive.org/details/ldpd_7285627_000/page/n469 Apte Sanskrit Dictionary]

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Garuda is mainly known as
Pakshi Raja: king of birds
Sarpa Vairi: enemy of the serpents
Vishnu Vahana: mount of Mahavishnu

Describing Garuda, the Vachaspatyam says,
कश्यपात्मजे विनतागर्भजाते | १ पक्षिराजे अमरः। विनतापिसुसिद्धार्था बभूव मुदिता तदा। जनयामास पुत्रौ अरुणं गरुडं तथा। विकलाङ्गोऽरुणस्तत्र भास्करस्यपुरःसरः। पतत्त्रिणान्तु गरुड इन्द्रत्वेनाभ्यषिच्यत । [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.325995/page/n1339 Vachaspatyam]

kaśyapātmaje vinatāgarbhajāte | 1 pakṣirāje amaraḥ। vinatāpisusiddhārthā babhūva muditā tadā। janayāmāsa putrau aruṇaṁ garuḍaṁ tathā। vikalāṅgo'ruṇastatra bhāskarasyapuraḥsaraḥ। patattriṇāntu garuḍa indratvenābhyaṣicyata ।
Meaning: The son of Kashyapa and Vinata, Garuda, is referred to as king of birds (Pakshi Raja) by Amara (in the Amarakosha). It further says that Vinata gave birth to two sons viz. Aruna and Garuda. Aruna, who was not physically developed became the charioteer of Sun (one who moves before the Sun) and Garuda was coronated with the prestige of lordship (indratva of the birds).

Garuda is also known for his enemity with serpents. It is said that, in a dispute between his mother Vinata and Kadru (her sister and Kashyapa’s other wife), about the colour of उचैःश्रवस् horse, Kadru defeated Vinata, and according to the conditions, made Vinata her slave. It was Garuda who, after a hard struggle with Indra, brought down Amrta inorder to free his mother. Though Vinata was then released, the Amrta was taken away by Indra from the serpents. This is seen as a cause of enemity between Garuda and the serpants. [https://archive.org/details/ldpd_7285627_000/page/n469 Apte Sanskrit Dictionary]

Garuda is mentioned in texts like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Garuda Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Matsya Purana, Skanda Purana (Revakhanda), Agni Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Varaha Purana etc.

Garuḍa, the son of Kaśyapa and Vinatā, the vehicle of Vishnu (Kṛshṇa), or the emblem of his flagstaff. In the meantime G. came out bursting the egg and ascended the skies. The gods thought that it was Agni, but were undeceived. Then the gods and the ṛshis praised G. and prevailed upon him to diminish his own energy and splendour: Bearing his brother Aruṇa on his back G. went from his father's home and arrived at his mother's side on the other shore of the ocean and placed Aruṇa in the east: G. carried the snakes on his back, but ascended too near to the Sun so that the snakes became scorched by the rays of the Sun: The serpents promised that if G. brought them the amṛta he and his mother should be freed from bondage (I, 27). Having been directed by Vinatā to live upon the Nishādas (b) but not to injure the brahmans, and being taught by her how to know who is a brahman, he set out, and, having come to the Nishādas, he raised a great quantity of dust, and opened his mouth; there the Nishādas entered by thousands, being blinded by the dust, and were devoured (I, 28). A brahman who, with his wife of the Nishāda caste, entered the throat of G., and began to burn him, was recognized and relieved with his wife by G. As G.'s hunger was not appeased Kaśyapa told him of the elephant Supratīka (b) and the tortoise Vibhāvasu: Then Kaśyapa blessed G. G. then seized the elephant and the tortoise and came to the tīrtha Alamba. A banyan-tree invited him to sit on one of its huge branches, but the branch broke (I, 29). G. caught the branch with his beak, and perceiving Vālakhilyas suspended therefrom with their head downwards he continued to fly with the branch, the elephant, and the tortoise, fearing to kill the Vālakhilyas if he should throw away the branch. The Vālakhilyas therefore gave him the name Garuḍa (etymology: guruṃ bhāraṃ samāsādyoḍḍīnaḥ, v. 1390). On Gandhamādana he saw Kaśyapa engaged in ascetic devotions. Kaśyapa propitiated the Vālakhilyas (c) for him, then they abandoned the bough and went to Himavat to practise ascetic penances. According to the advice of Kaśyapa G. flew away for a hundred thousand of yojanas to a mountain without human beings, there he threw down the bough and ate the tortoise and the elephant. Then he again rose on his wings: Omens foreboding fear began to appear among the gods. Bṛhaspati declared that it was owing to the fault of Indra and the ascetic penances of the Vālakhilyas (cf. § 45) that G. now approached to take away the soma. Indra then caused the gods to surround and watch the amṛta (by the penances of the Vālakhilyas G. had been born as the lord of winged creatures (patatrīṇām indraḥ, v. 1455)).--§ 46 (Āstīkap.): G. attacked the gods, whom he blinded with dust, and Bhaumana lay as dead on the field. Indra caused Vāyu to dispel the dust. The Sādhyas and the Gandharvas fled eastwards, the Vasus and the Rudras towards the south, the Ādityas towards the west, and the Aśvins towards the north. G. then slew nine Yakshas, Aśvakranda, etc. (), who guarded the amṛta. The amṛta on all sides was surrounded with fire. G. then divided his mouth into 8100 mouths, and taking water from many rivers he extinguished the fire. Then he assumed a diminutive body (I, 32), and passed through the spokes of the revolving keen-edged wheel of steel placed before the soma. Then there were two great snakes, who would reduce to ashes everyone who might be seen by them. G. covered their eyes with dust, and unseen by them mangled them to pieces. He then flew away with the amṛta, not drinking it himself. He met with Vishṇu on his way and they agreed that G. should stay above Vishṇu, sitting on the flagstaff of his chariot and be his vehicle, and be immortal and free from disease without drinking amṛta. While G. was flying Indra hurled his thunderbolt at him. G. did not feel the slightest pain, but in honour of Dadhīca and Indra and the thunderbolt G. dropped a feather, and from its beauty he gained the name Suparṇa (I, 33). Indra and G. made friendship with each other, and agreed that G. should not give the soma to anyone for drink. Indra should bring it away after it had been put down by G., and G. should feed on the snakes. The snakes declared Vinatā to be free; G. placed down the soma on some kuśa grass, and while the snakes were performing their ablutions, their daily devotions, and other religious rites, Indra took up the amṛta and reṭurned to heaven. When the snakes licked the kuśa grass their tongues were divided in twain, and the kuśa grass, from the contact with the amṛta, became sacred from this time ([https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98210/page/n5 Index Names Mahabharata])

Also refer Mahabharata Cultural Index. Points:
* Origin
* Progeny
* Eminence
* Bringer of Amrta
* Galava Episode
* Sumukha Episode
* Association with Vishnu
* Association with Sesha
* Association with Skanda
* Other feats:
* Strength
* Greatness

== Names ==
गरुत्मान्गरुडस्तार्क्ष्यो वैनतेयः खगेश्वरः। नागान्तको विष्णुरथः सुपर्णः पन्नगाशनः॥ 1।1।29।1।2

स्वामी : विष्णुः

सम्बन्धि1 : विष्णुः

पदार्थ-विभागः : , द्रव्यम्, पृथ्वी, चलसजीवः, मनुष्येतरः, अलौकिकप्राणी [https://archive.org/details/AmaraKosha/page/n17 Amarkosha]

गरुडः, गरुत्मान् m. (-त्मत्), तार्क्ष्यः, खगेश्वरः, सुपर्णः, विष्णुरथः, वैनतेयः, विनतासूनुः m., नागान्तकः, पन्नगाशनः, भुजगदारणः, सिताननः, दक्षाय्यः. The son of Garuda is called सम्पातिः -तिकः. (MW)

== Genealogy ==
Descended from viṣṇu thus:--brahmā -marīci--kaśyapa--garuḍa.<ref name=":1" />

Lineage of Garuda

Ramayana, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]], [https://www.valmikiramayan.net/utf8/aranya/sarga14/aranya_14_frame.htm Canto 14.]

== जन्म ॥ Birth ==
The story of Garuda's birth occurs in Adhyaya 16 in the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata.

It is said that, in the Satya Yuga, Daksha Prajapati had two beautiful daughters viz. Kadru and Vinata. They were married to Rshi Kashyapa. One day, Kashyapa who was as powerful as Prajapati Brahma, being much pleased granted both his wives a boon of their choice. Kadru chose to have a thousand nagas as her children while Vinata chose to have two sons more powerful and heroic than the thousand sons of Kadru. Both being thus satisfied with the boon, Kashyapa retreated into the forest.

After a long time, Kadru laid thousand eggs and Vinata laid two eggs. The maids were elated and preserved the eggs in hot pots. In the 500th year, the eggs of Kadru hatched and thousand serpents of various kinds emerged out of them. But Vinata's eggs did not seem to hatch. This offended her and therefore, she broke open one of the eggs with her own hands. However, she noticed that only the upper body of her son had developed.<ref name=":0">Ramanarayanadatta Shastri Pandeya, Mahabharata (Vol.1), Gorakhpur: Gita Press, Adi Parva, [https://archive.org/details/MAHABHARATA_201902/page/n105 Adhyaya 16].</ref> It is said that, this son cursed his mother in anger saying, <blockquote>स पुत्रः क्रोधसंरब्धः शशापैनामिति श्रुतिः। योऽहमेवं कृतो मातस्त्वया लोभपरीतया ॥१८॥</blockquote><blockquote>शरीरेणासमग्रेण तस्माद्दासी भविष्यसि। पञ्च वर्षशतान्यस्या यया विस्पर्धसे सह ॥१९॥<ref name=":2">Mahabharata, Adi Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-01-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-016 Adhyaya 16].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''sa putraḥ krodhasaṁrabdhaḥ śaśāpaināmiti śrutiḥ। yo'hamevaṁ kr̥to mātastvayā lobhaparītayā ॥18॥''</blockquote><blockquote>''śarīreṇāsamagreṇa tasmāddāsī bhaviṣyasi। pañca varṣaśatānyasyā yayā vispardhase saha ॥19॥''</blockquote>Meaning: Oh mother ! You have left me half grown by falling prey to your greed and did not let me develop completely. Therefore, you will become the maid of that very person (co-wife) whom you envy.<ref name=":0" />

However, he also uttered the means of redemption from the curse. He said,<blockquote>एष च त्वां सुतो मातर्दासीत्वान्मोचयिष्यति । यद्येनमपि मातस्त्वं मामिवाण्डविभेदनात् ॥२०॥<ref name=":2" /></blockquote><blockquote>''eṣa ca tvāṁ suto mātardāsītvānmocayiṣyati । yadyenamapi mātastvaṁ māmivāṇḍavibhedanāt ॥20॥''</blockquote>Meaning: And O Mother ! Your second son in this other egg will relieve you from this slavery, provided you let him develop completely and not break the egg as you did in my case.

Having thus asked Vinata to wait for 500 years more for the birth of her second son, Aruna rose to the sky where he became the charioteer of the Sun. And later, at the stipulated time, Garuda, the destroyer of the serpents was born.<ref name=":0" />

500 years the egg broke itself open and out came garuḍa with blazing effulgence, and he rose up in the sky. His body glowed like the sun. The devas who got themselves dimmed by his effulgence asked Agnideva the reason therefor. Agnideva told them about the birth of garuḍa and also that he was equally effulgent as himself (Agnideva). Then all of them went to garuḍa and lavished on his head all possible blessings, and garuḍa, as requested by them, controlled his effulgence and returned to his mother. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 23).<ref name=":1" />

shortly after his birth he frightened the deities by his brilliant lustre; they supposed him to be अग्नि, and requested his protection; when they discovered that he was गरुड, they praised him as the highest being, and called him fire and sun MBh. i, 1239 ff.; (MW)

Once Prajapati Kashyapa was doing a yajna with the desire of obtaining a son. He was being helped by rshis, deities and gandharvas. Accordingly, the task of collecting samidha was entrusted to Indra, the Valakhilya rshis and other deities. The powerful Indra chose to bring wood befitting his strength. As he was carrying mountain like log of wood, he came across the Valakhilyas who were the size of half a thumb and were struggling to carry one twig of Palasha tree amongst them. Seeing this, Indra, overcome with pride, slighted and stepped across them. This enraged the Valakhilyas who took the sankalpa (vow) of obtaining a second Indra for the deities who would be a hundred times more valourous than the current Indra. This was a cause of great concern for the current Indra who then went to the resort of sage Kashyapa. Sage Kashyapa then explained to the Valakhilyas that it is due to Lord Brahma’s order that Indra rules over the three worlds. And their wish for a second Indra will defy the words of Lord Brahma. Therefore, he requested the Valakhilyas not to falsify the verdict of Lord Brahma. And in order that the wish of the Valakhilyas is also fulfilled, he suggested that may the child whose birth they seek become the Indra of birds. He requested them to bless Lord Indra who had come to them as recipient. Convinced by the speech of Rshi Kashyapa, the Valakhilyas said, “Oh Prajapati, our vow was to obtain an Indra while yours was to obtain a son. Therefore, may you accept the fruit of our vow.” Thus, Rshi Kashyapa’s wife Vinata, who at that time was following the vow of Brahmacharya to obtain a progeny was blessed to bear that great son whose birth was the result of the vows of Rshi Kashyapa and the Valakhilyas. This son, who came to be known as the Indra of birds, is none other than Garuda. Reference : Mahabharata ([https://archive.org/details/MAHABHARATA_201902/page/n135 Adi Parva] Adhyaya 31)

== Garuda in Mahabharata ==
Adhyaya 16 (Complete), 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34.

== Family ==
कद्रूर् नाग सहस्रम् तु विजज्ञे धरणीधरन् | द्वौ पुत्रौ विनतायाः तु गरुडो अरुण एव च || ३-१४-३२

Kadru gave birth to a thousand-headed serpent who is the bearer of this earth, and Vinata gave birth to two sons namely Garuda and Aruna. [https://www.valmikiramayan.net/utf8/aranya/sarga14/aranya_14_frame.htm <nowiki>[3-14-32]</nowiki>]

aruṇa and garuḍa were the two sons born to Vinata. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Canto 15).<ref name=":1" />

Vinata, a wife of Kasyapa gave birth to Garuda and Kadru and her sister gave birth to the Nagas.

The churning of the Milk-ocean was done before garuḍa was born. indra got a horse named Uccaiḥśravas from the Ocean of Milk. Between Kadru and Vinata a dispute arose as regards the colour of the horse's tail, Kadru saying that it was black while Vinata asserted that it was white. They further agreed to test the colour the next day, betting that she who was proved to be wrong would become the slave of the victor. As the nāga sons of Kadru hung on to the tail of the horse the tail appeared to be black and Vinata lost the bet and became Kadru's slave.

It was at this juncture that garuḍa was born, and he felt highly mortified to find his mother working as a slave of Kadru.

garuḍa, extremely pained at the pitiable plight of his mother, one day asked Kadru what price she and her children demanded for freeing Vinata from slavery, and Kadru demanded Amṛta from Devaloka as the price. garuḍa decided to get it and informed his mother about his decision to fly to Devaloka.

Vinata blessed her son that his wings would be protected by vāyu, the lower half of his body by sun and moon, the rest of the body by the Vasus and the head by agni. She also promised to wait there till her son returned.<ref name=":1" />

=== Birth (PE) ===
kaśyapa, grandson of Brahmā and son of marīci married the eight daughters of dakṣa called aditi, diti, danu, kālikā, tāmrā, krodhavaśā, manu and analā. And to tāmrā five daughters were born, viz. krauñcī, bhāsī, śyenī, dhṛtarāṣṭrī and śukī. Out of the five women krauñcī became mother of the owls, bhāsī delivered the bhāsas (types of birds) and from śyenī were born vultures and kites. haṁsa, Kalahaṁsa, koka etc. are children of dhṛtarāṣṭrī. From śukī was born Nalā and from Nalā, vinatā; aruṇa and garuḍa were the two sons born to Vinatā. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Canto 15).

There is a story in the Mahābhārata about the birth of Aruṇa and Garuḍa. Kaśyapa who was much pleased with the seva (सेवा | selfless service) of Vinatā and Kadrū asked them to select any boon they desired. Kadrū chose to have a thousand nāgas as her children while vinatā chose to have two sons more powerful and heroic than the thousand sons of Kadrū. After granting them the boon kaśyapa retreated into the forest.

After some time Kadrū laid thousand eggs and Vinatā two eggs. Both of them kept their eggs in hot pots. In the 500th year the eggs of Kadrū hatched and thousand serpents of various kinds emerged out of them. But Vinatā's eggs did not hatch yet, and the sight of kadrū playing with her children pained Vinatā much. She, therefore, broke open one of her eggs in secret, and a half-grown child stepped out of it. That child was Aruṇa. Aruṇa got angry that Vinatā forced open the egg prematurely. He told her that as punishment thereof she would become a slave of Kadrū. But, Aruṇa granted her redemption from the curse thus: After another 500 years the remaining egg of yours will hatch and a son endowed with exceptional power and prowess will be born to you. He will liberate you from slavery.” After telling his mother so much Aruṇa rose to the sky where he became the charioteer of the Sun. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 16. See also para 6 infra).

After 500 years the egg broke itself open and out came Garuḍa with blazing effulgence, and he rose up in the sky. His body glowed like the sun. The devas who got themselves dimmed by his effulgence asked Agnideva the reason therefor. Agnideva told them about the birth of Garuḍa and also that he was equally effulgent as himself (Agnideva). Then all of them went to Garuḍa and lavished on his head all possible blessings, and Garuḍa, as requested by them, controlled his effulgence and returned to his mother. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 23).

=== Vinata (PE) ===
The churning of the Milk-ocean was done before garuḍa was born. indra got a horse named Uccaiḥśravas from the Ocean of Milk. Between kadrū and vinatā a dispute arose as regards the colour of the horse's tail, kadrū saying that it was black while vinatā asserted that it was white. They further agreed to test the colour the next day, betting that she who was proved to be wrong would become the slave of the victor. As the nāga sons of kadrū hung on to the tail of the horse the tail appeared to be black and vinatā lost the bet and became Kadrū's slave.

It was at this juncture that garuḍa was born, and he felt highly mortified to find his mother working as a slave of kadrū.

kadrū and her nāga sons once ordered vinatā to carry them to the nāga residence in the middle of the ocean, called rāmaṇīyaka (Ramaṇam). Accordingly vinatā carrying kadrū on her shoulders and garuḍa carrying Kadrū's sons on his shoulders rose up in the sky. But, garuḍa did not relish the slavish work, and he, carrying with him the nāgas, flew up to the sun's orbit. The nāga children fainted due to the excessive heat. But, on the request of kadrū indra sent heavy rain and the nāgas regained consciousness. By then they had reached rāmaṇīyaka island.

=== Freedom of Vinata (PE) ===
garuḍa, extremely pained at the pitiable plight of his mother, one day asked kadrū what price she and her children demanded for freeing vinatā from slavery, and kadrū demanded Amṛta from Devaloka as the price. garuḍa decided to get it and informed his mother about his decision to fly to Devaloka. But, what about food till he reached Devaloka? vinatā solved the problem by advising garuḍa to eat the niṣādas he will meet on his way to Devaloka at the island called Niṣādālaya, at the same time specially forbidding him from eating on any account, brahmins who might be there, at Niṣādālaya. How to distinguish brahmins from others, queried garuḍa, and his mother replied by pointing out that the brahmin will burn the throat of him who tries to eat him, like fire. Then vinatā blessed her son that his wings would be protected by vāyu, the lower half of his body by sun and moon, the rest of the body by the Vasus and the head by agni. She also promised to wait there till her son returned.

=== In Devaloka (PE) ===
After saluting his mother garuḍa set out on his quest for Amṛta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. He reached Niṣādālaya, where while consuming whole lots of Niṣādas a brahmin and his wife also happened to get into his throat. garuḍa felt their presence immediately in his throat and requested them to get out of his mouth. Accordingly they got out and also blessed garuḍa, who continued on his journey.

Next garuḍa reached the forest where his father kaśyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission and requested him for something to eat. kaśyapa replied thus:--“You see a pool wherein an elephant and a tortoise are living for long as enemies. Long ago two brothers vibhāvasu and supratīka quarrelled over their paternal wealth and at the height of it vibhāvasu cursed supratīka to become an elephant when supratīka pronounced the counter curse that vibhāvasu should turn out to be a tortoise. You, my son garuḍa may eat that elephant and tortoise. May your journey for Amṛta be crowned with success.

Now, garuḍa after saluting his father, flew up in the sky carrying in his beak the elephant and the tortoise from the pool. As trees were falling uprooted due to the terrific vibrations caused by the lashing of his wings garuḍa did not find a convenient place to sit down to eat his food. While continuing the journey garuḍa saw a big tree, its branches spread out in a circumference of a hundred yojanas. But, as soon as garuḍa set foot on a branch of the tree it (branch) crumbled down. On that broken branch were the sages called bālakhilyas doing tapas hanging their heads down. Fearing that the sages might fall down garuḍa continued his flight holding in his beak the torn branch of the tree. But he could not find a safe place to deposit the branch with the sages. So he came again to Mount gandhamādana and saw kaśyapa, who apologised to the bālakhilyas on behalf of his son and also explained to them about his mission. The bālakhilyas were pleased and they left the place for the Himālayas. As advised by kaśyapa garuḍa deposited the branch of the tree on an uninhabited mountain peak. garuḍa ate the elephant and the tortoise there, and therefrom flew to Devaloka (Ādi Parva, Chapter 29, 30).

=== Curse of Valakhilyas (PE) ===
Even before the arrival of garuḍa ill omens began appearing in Devaloka. indra asked bṛhaspati for explanation about the ill omens. bṛhaspati with his divine eyes saw garuḍa approaching Devaloka for Amṛta, and he told indra about garuḍa born out of the powers of the tapas of kaśyapa and the bālakhilyas. He also told that such a fate as the present one befell indra due to a curse of the bālakhilyas. indra and the other devas stood guard over the pot of Amṛta ready to repel all possible attacks.

There was a reason for Garuḍa's birth from the powers of the tapas of the bālakhilyas, and also for indra to be put into the present predicament due to the curse of the bālakhilyas. Kaśyapaprajāpati, a long time ago, began a terrific yajña for a son, and indra and the bālakhilyas who numbered more than 60,000 were deputed by kaśyapa to collect firewood for the yajña. The bālakhilyas were only of the size of a thumb, and indra who very easily collected all the firewood needed for the yajña laughed at the tiny bālakhilyas who were carrying small twigs etc. for firewood. Angered at the insult the bālakhilyas removed themselves to another place nearby and began a yajña directed against indra who alarmed at it sought the help of kaśyapa who then held peace talks with the bālakhilyas. They transferred their yāgaśakti (yājñic powers) also to kaśyapa and agreed to be satisfied with the condition that as the result of Kaśyapa's yajña a son should be born to him, who (the son) would defeat indra. Thus, for the time being indra escaped from the wrath of the bālakhilyas. After the yajña was over vinatā came to kaśyapa and he blessed her with a son wishing that he should become exceptionally strong and powerful, and that was garuḍa. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 30).

=== Amṛtakalaśāpaharaṇam. (PE) ===
garuḍa approached the pot of nectar, and viśvakarmā who attacked him first was felled to the ground. The dust storm raised by the waving of Garuḍa's wings blinded everybody. The devas and indra, nay, even the sun and the Moon lined up against garuḍa, but he defeated them all, and entered the particular place where the pot of nectar was kept. Two terrific wheels were rotating round the pot and they would cut into mince-meat anybody who tried to lay hands on the pot and a machine circled the wheels. Below the wheels were two monstrous serpents with glowing eyes and protruding tongues like flashes of fire, and the serpents never closed their eyes. The very look with those eyes was enough to poison anyone to death. garuḍa blinded those eyes by raising a torrent of dust, pierced them in the middle with his beak and and through the hole, his body reduced to such a tiny shape, went nearer to the pot. He destroyed the wheels and the machine, and carrying the pot of nectar in his beaks rose to the sky shielding the light of the sun by his outspread wings. Mahāviṣṇu, who became so much pleased with the tremendous achievements of garuḍa asked him to choose any boon. garuḍa requested viṣṇu that he should be made his (Viṣṇu's) vehicle and rendered immortal without his tasting amṛta. Both the boons were granted.

=== Indra (PE) ===
indra hit with the vajra (his special weapon) the wings of garuḍa who was returning from viṣṇu. It did not wound his body, but a feather of his fell in the atmosphere. Everybody who saw the feather acclaimed garuḍa as suparṇa (he with the good wings). indra was wonder-struck, and he approached garuḍa and requested that they should be friends in future and the pot of nectar be returned. garuḍa replied that the nectar would be returned if he was granted the power to make nāgas his food, and indra blessed him that he would live by consuming nāgas. And then garuḍa told indra thus: “I took this pot of amṛta not for my own use. The nāgas cheated my mother and made her a slave, and she will be freed if only this pot of nectar is given to them (nāgas). You may snatch off the pot from the nāgas; I shall not object to it.”

indra and garuḍa thus became friends and the former followed garuḍa on his way back home.

9) garuḍa handed over the pot of amṛta to the nāgas and indra cheated them of it. garuḍa handed over the pot of nectar to the nāgas, who on the suggestion of the former placed the pot on darbha grass spread on the ground. Also, in accordance with Garuḍa's advice that they should take a purificatory bath before tasting the amṛta the nāgas went out to have the bath, and in their absence indra carried off the pot of nectar back to Devaloka. Failing to find the pot of nectar on their return from bath the aggrieved nāgas licked the darbha on which the pot was placed with the result that their tongues were cloven into two. It was from that day onwards that the nāgas became double-tongued (dvijihvas). And, thus garuḍa redeemed his mother from slavery. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 34)

10) The fig tree which garuḍa broke with his beaks and laṅkā. It has been noted above that garuḍa on his way to Devaloka rested on a fig tree. That fig is called subhadra in vālmīki rāmāyaṇa.

rāvaṇa saw the fig tree around which sages were sitting and which bore marks made by garuḍa sitting thereon. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Canto 35, Verse 26).

There is some connection between this tree and laṅkā. garuḍa had, as directed by kaśyapa, deposited in the sea the branch of the tree on which the bālakhilyas hung in tapas and with which garuḍa flew hither and thither fearing about the safety of the bālakhilyas. At the spot in the sea where the branch was deposited sprang up an island like the peak of a mountain. It was this island which in after years became reputed as laṅkā. (kathāsaritsāgara, Kathāmukhalaṁbaka, Taraṅga 4).

11) garuḍa, saubhari and kāliya. garuḍa had always entertained great hatred against the nāgas, and now Indra's permission having been obtained by him to eat the nāgas for food, garuḍa decided to launch a regular nāga-hunting expedition. He began eating the nāgas one by one. Alarmed at this the nāgas planned for their security in a conclave, and approached garuḍa with the proposal that one nāga would go to him daily to serve as his food instead of his indiscriminate killing of them. garuḍa accepted their proposal. After some time the nāgas proposed to garuḍa that they would conduct a sarpa-bali (sacrifice of serpents) and submit the food got out of the bali to him so that his nāgahunting might be stopped for ever. garuḍa agreed to this also. According to the new agreement daily one nāga began going to garuḍa with the food got out of the bali.

But kāliya alone did not agree to the programme as he did not recognise garuḍa to be superior to him in power. And, garuḍa, who wanted to teach the haughty kāliya a lesson challenged him to fight, and the fight took place in river kālindī, Kāliya's abode. During the fight the lashing of Garuḍa's wings raised the water in kālindī up in the sky and it drenched the sage saubhari all over, who was performing tapas on the banks of kālindī. saubhari cursed that the body of garuḍa be shattered into a thousand pieces if ever he entered that area in future, and thenceforth the place became a prohibited area for garuḍa. During after years kāliya was put up at this place.

A kadamba tree alone outlived the eflect of the poison of kāliya. The tree could outlive the deadly poison because garuḍa had rested on it on his way back from Devaloka with amṛta. (bhāgavata daśama Śkandha).

12) Relationship of garuḍa with the kings of the solar dynasty. King sagara of the solar dynasty was married to sumati, the elder sister of garuḍa, and there is a story behind the marriage.

There was once a king called subāhu in the solar dynasty. He married one yādavī, but for many years they had no issues. yādavī had become old by the time she conceived a child as the result of many yajñas etc. But, Subāhu's other wives, viz. co-wives of yādavī, did not like the prospects of yādavī becoming a mother. They administered poison to her with the result that yādavī did not deliver in time, but continued as a pregnant woman for seven years. The sad couple, for their mental relief went into the forest and lived as disciples of a sage called aurva. But subāhu died rather soon and yādavī prepared herself to follow him in the funeral pyre. But, the sage aurva prevented her from self immolation speaking to her thus: “You shall not act rashly. The child in your womb will become a famous emperor and rule over the whole world.”

yādavī yielded to the sage's advice and did not court death, and soon afterwards she delivered a son, and he was named sagara, which meant “he who was affected by poison even while he was in the mother's womb. It was this child who, in later years, became reputed as emperor sagara.

sagara married the elder sister of garuḍa when he was living as a boy in Aurva's āśrama, and there is a story behind the marriage, a story which related to the time when garuḍa was not born.

vinatā, mother of garuḍa, while she was working as the slave of kadrū, one day went into the woods to collect firewood for her mistress. In the terrible rain and storm that ensued, vinatā lost her track and wandered in the forest for many days before she could take shelter in the āśrama of a Sannyāsin. The pious man felt sorry for poor vinatā and blessed her that a son, who would be able to win freedom for her would be born to her. garuḍa was the son thus born to her.

Before the birth of garuḍa when kaśyapa and vinatā were living together with their daughter sumati the boy sage upamanyu, son of sutapas, went to them and told kaśyapa thus: “While touring round the earth I worshipped the pitṛs at gayā and I have been told that they (pitṛs) would get redemption only in case I married and became a father. I, therefore, request you to please give your daughter sumati to me as wife. vinatā did not relish this proposal. upamanyu got angry at the rejection of his offer and cursed vinatā saying that if sumati was given in marriage to any other brahmin boy she (vinatā) would die with her head broken into pieces.

It was during this period when vinatā was in a fix about the marriage of sumati that garuḍa was born to her. He also thought over the problem and argued like this: the curse is only against a brahmin boy marrying my sister sumati; why not sumati be given in marriage to a kṣatriya; but where to find an eligible kṣatriya boy? At this stage vinatā asked him to go and meet the Sannyāsin, who had promised her an illustrious son, in the forest and this Sannyāsin directed garuḍa to aurva, for advice and guidance. When garuḍa met aurva and sought his advice about the marriage of his sister, the sage thought that the context offered a very good bride to sagara. And, according to Aurva's advice sumati was married to sagara, and thus garuḍa became related to the Kings of the Solar dynasty. (brahmāṇḍa purāṇa, Chapters 16, 17 and 18). The Sixty thousand sons born to sagara by sumati were reduced to ashes in the fire which emanated from the eyes of kapila. (See kapila). When aṁśumān, the grandson of sagara was going around the world to find out these 60,000 sons he met garuḍa on the way, and it was he who advised that the waters of gaṅgā should be brought down on earth so that the dead sons of sagara might get adhyatmik redemption. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, Bālakāṇḍa, Chapter 41).

13) Garuḍa's conceit laid low. A very beautiful daughter, guṇakeśī, was born to mātali, the charioteer of indra. In the course of his search for a suitable husband for guṇakeśī he came to Pātālaloka in the company of nārada, and there mātali selected a noble nāga called sumukha as his prospective son-in-law. But a month before garuḍa had eaten Sumukha's father Cikara, and he had also given notice to sumukha that within a month's time he too would be eaten.

nārada and mātali met sumukha at the abode of his grandfather āryaka, who was very glad to marry his grandson to Mātali's daughter. But, the threat of garuḍa that he would eat sumukha before the month was over stared them all cruelly in their face. So, they appealed to indra for a solution to the problem, in the presence of Mahāviṣṇu. indra gave an extension of life to sumukha and he wedded guṇakeśī. The marriage enraged garuḍa so much that he went to Indra's assembly and insulted both indra and viṣṇu at which viṣṇu extended his right hand to garuḍa asking him whether he could hold the hand. And, when garuḍa placed Viṣṇu's hand on his head he felt as if the whole weight of the three worlds was put on the head. garuḍa admitted his defeat. Mahāviṣṇu thus laid low the conceit of garuḍa. (Udyoga Parva, Chapter 105).

14) garuḍa helped gālava. gālava was a disciple of viśvāmitra. Once Dharmadeva, to test viśvāmitra, went to his āśrama disguised as vasiṣṭha and asked for food. As there was no ready-made food at the āśrama just then, viśvāmitra naturally took some time to cook new food, and he went with it, steaming hot, in a plate to the guest. Saying that he would return within minutes and receive the food, the guest (Dharmadeva) left the place, and viśvāmitra stood there with the plate in hand awaiting the return of the guest. He had to remain standing thus for one hundred years, and during this whole period it was gālava who stood there looking after his guru. When hundred years were completed Dharmadeva returned to viśvāmitra and accepted his hospitality, and then only could the latter take some rest.

viśvāmitra blessed gālava, and now it was time for him to leave the āśrama. Though viśvāmitra told that no gurudakṣiṇā (tuition fee) was required gālava persisted in asking him what fee or present he wanted. viśvāmitra lost his temper and told gālava that if he was so very particular about gurudakṣiṇā, eight hundred horses all having the colour of moon, and one ear black in colour might be given as dakṣiṇā. gālava stood there aghast at the above pronouncement of his preceptor, when garuḍa happened to go over there and hear from gālava about his sad plight. Money was required to purchase horses, but gālava was penniless. At any rate garuḍa with gālava on his back flew eastwards and reached ṛṣabhaparvata and they rested on a peak of it. There the brahmā woman, śāṇḍilī was engaged in tapas and she served them with food. After food garuḍa spoke disparagingly about śāṇḍilī. garuḍa and gālava slept that night on the floor, but when they woke up in the morning lo! garuḍa was completely shed of his feathers. garuḍa stood before śāṇḍilī, his head bent in anguish. śāṇḍilī blessed garuḍa, who then got back his old feathers.

Continuing their journey garuḍa and gālava reached the palace of the very rich King, yayāti. garuḍa introduced gālava to yayāti, who found it difficult to get 800 horses for gālava. But, yayāti gave his daughter mādhavī to gālava saying that he might give her to any King and get money enough to purchase 800 horses. After thus showing the means to get money to gālava, garuḍa returned home.

gālava gave mādhavī first to King haryaśva of ayodhyā, then to King divodāsa of kāśī and next to King uśīnara of bhoja and got from them two hundred horses each, and he submitted the horses and also mādhavī in lieu of the balance of two hundred horses to viśvāmitra as dakṣiṇā. A son called aṣṭaka was born to viśvāmitra by mādhavī, who had been granted a boon that she would not lose her youth and beauty even though she lived with any number of people. (udyogaparva Chapter 108).

15) Fight between garuḍa and airāvata. śrī kṛṣṇa once went to Devaloka and plucked the pārijāta flower from the garden nandana, and this led to a fight between indra and kṛṣṇa in which garuḍa also joined. garuḍa directed his main attention on airāvata which, at his blows, fainted and fell down. (harivaṁśa, Chapter 73).

16) Defeated by vāsuki. To churn the Milk-Ocean the devas and Asuras decided to use Mount mandara as the shaft and vāsuki as the rope to rotate the shaft. The attempts of the devas, the Asuras and the Bhūtagaṇas of śiva failed to uproot and bring with them the mountain, when garuḍa, at the instance of viṣṇu brought the mountain as easily as a kite carries a frog. Again, when others failed to bring vāsuki from nāgaloka garuḍa went and asked the nāga chief to follow him to the ocean of Milk. vāsuki replied that if his presence was so indispensable he must be carried over there. Then garuḍa caught the middle part of vāsuki in his beak and rose in the air. But, even though garuḍa rose beyond the horizon, when he looked down half of vāsuki still remained on the ground. garuḍa then tried to fold vāsuki into two and carry it, but, again to no purpose. Disappointed and humiliated garuḍa returned without vāsuki. Afterwards vāsuki was brought to the ocean of Milk by Śiva's hand stretched down into pātāla. (Kamba rāmāyaṇa, yuddha Kāṇḍa).

17) bhīma went in search of the saugandhika flower on account of garuḍa. While, in the course of their exile in the forest, the pāṇḍavas were put up at the āśrama of maharṣi ārṣṭiṣeṇa, garuḍa picked up from the depths of the sea one day a nāga called ṛddhimān, and due to the vibration caused by the lashing of Garuḍa's wings Kalhāra flowers from the garden of kubera were flown to the feet of pāñcālī. She wore the fragrant flowers in her hair saying that if she were to have good flowers, wind had to bring them. Since there was a mild and veiled insinuation in that statement that bhīma was inferior to the wind the former did not appreciate that comment by pāñcālī. And so he rushed to Mount gandhamādana to collect Kalhāra flowers. (Vana Parva, Chapter 106).

18) garuḍa saved uparicaravasu. Once a controversy started between the devas and the brahmins, the former advocating the use of goat's flesh in performing yajñas while the brahmins contended that grains were sufficient for the purpose. uparicaravasu, who arbitrated in the debate spoke in favour of the devas, which the brahmins did not like, and they cursed vasu to fall from the sky into the pits of the earth. This curse was countered by the devas blessing him that as long as uparicaravasu remained on earth he would not feel hungry and that he would regain his old form due to the blessings of Mahāviṣṇu. vasu prayed to viṣṇu, who sent garuḍa to the former, and garuḍa carried vasu to the sky on his wings. Thus vasu became again uparicaravasu. (śānti Parva, Chapter 338).

19) Other information about garuḍa. (1) A dānava once stole away the crown of Śṛī kṛṣṇa who was on a visit to Mount gomanta. garuḍa retrieved it from the dānava and returned it to kṛṣṇa. (bhāgavata, Daśama skandha).

(2) The monkeys who searched for sītā visited the house of garuḍa also. (vālmīki rāmāyaṇa, kiṣkindhā Kāṇḍa, Canto 40, Verse 39).

(3) garuḍa had married the four daughters of Dakṣaprajāpati. (bhāgavata, 6th skandha).

(4) He had a son named kapota. (Udyoga Parva, Chapter 101),

(5) During the rāma-rāvaṇa war lakṣmaṇa, sugrīva and all the monkeys swooned hit by the nāgāstra of indrajit. śrī rāma then thought of garuḍa, who at once came down on earth and bit away the nāgapāśa. (Kamba rāmāyaṇa Yuddhakāṇḍa).

(6) garuḍa was present at the birth-day celebrations of arjuna. (Ādi Parva, Chapter 122, Verse 50).

(7) At the birth of subrahmaṇya garuḍa submitted his own son, mayūra, as a present. (anuśāsana parva, Chapter 86, Verse 21).

20) Synonyms for garuḍa.

Garutmān Garuḍas Tārkṣyo Vainateyaḥ Khageśvaraḥ Nāgāntako Viṣṇurathaḥ Suparṇaḥ Pannagāśanaḥ. (Garutmān, garuḍa, tārkṣya, vainateya, Khageśvara, Nāgāntaka, Viṣṇuratha, suparṇa, Pannagāśana. (Amarakośa).

21) Names used in the mahābhārata to represent garuḍa. Aruṇānuja, Bhujagāri, Garutmān, Kāśyapeya, Khagarāṭ, Pakṣirāja, Patagapati, Patageśvara, suparṇa, tārkṣya, vainateya, Vinatānandavardhana, Vinatāsūnu, Vinatāsuta, Vinatātmaja. (For story regarding how garuḍa stopped eating nāgas see under jīmūtavāhana).

=== Amrtam ===
Amrtam which has been thus recovered after many such adventures, is still preserved carefully in devaloka. [ (1) M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 17. (2) M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 27, verse 16. (3) M.B. Adi Parva, Chapter 30, Verse 2. (4) Valmlki Ramayana, Aranya Kanda, 35th Sarga. (5) Visnu Purana, Section 1, Chapter 9. (6) Agni Purana, Chapter 152. (7) Bhagavata, 8th Skandha. (8) Uttara Ramayana.]

After saluting his mother garuḍa set out on his quest for Amṛta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. garuḍa reached the forest where his father kaśyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission<ref name=":1" />

once went to devaloka and brought Amrtam from there to be given to the Nagas, but Devendra came down and took it back. This story is given in Mahabharata from Chapter 27 onwards. Agni Purana, Chapter 19 refers to Garuda and Aruna as the sons of Vinata.

=== Garuda and Valakhilyas ===
Garuda (Eagle) who went to the realm of devas (gods) for Amrta (ambrosia) took rest on the branch of a banyan tree, and that branch was broken from the tree. Sixty thousand [[Valakhilyas (वालखिल्याः)|Valakhilyas]] were doing penance hanging head downwards on that branch. Garuda knew this only after the branch was broken. Fearing the curse form them he took the branch in his beak and flew about here and there. At last, according to the advice of Kasyapa, he took the branch to the mount Gandhamadana and without causing any harm to the small hermits placed it there (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 30).

garuḍa after saluting his father, flew up in the sky carrying in his beak the elephant and the tortoise from the pool. As trees were falling uprooted due to the terrific vibrations caused by the lashing of his wings garuḍa did not find a convenient place to sit down to eat his food. While continuing the journey garuḍa saw a big tree, its branches spread out in a circumference of a hundred yojanas. But, as soon as garuḍa set foot on a branch of the tree it (branch) crumbled down. On that broken branch were the sages called bālakhilyas doing tapas hanging their heads down. Fearing that the sages might fall down garuḍa continued his flight holding in his beak the torn branch of the tree. But he could not find a safe place to deposit the branch with the sages. So he came again to Mount gandhamādana and saw kaśyapa, who apologised to the bālakhilyas on behalf of his son and also explained to them about his mission. The bālakhilyas were pleased and they left the place for the Himālayas. As advised by kaśyapa garuḍa deposited the branch of the tree on an uninhabited mountain peak. and therefrom flew to Devaloka (Ādi Parva, Chapter 29, 30).<ref name=":1" />

=== Birth and Family ===
Vinata, a wife of Kasyapa gave birth to Garuda and Kadru and her sister gave birth to the Nagas.<ref name=":1" /> Once there was a dispute between Vinata and Kadru. Vinata said that the hairs on the tail of [[Ucchaishrava (उच्चैःश्रवस्)|Uchaishravas]], Devendra's horse, were white but Kadru asserted that they were black. To settle the dispute they made a bet. The condition was that the loser must become the servant maid of the winner. As instructed by Kadru, some of the Nagas went in advance and hung down from the tail of Uccaissravas, thus giving the false appearance of a tail with black hairs. By this trick Vinata lost the bet and had to become Kadru's servant maid. As a result of it, the task of looking after Kadru's children became Garuda's duty. Kadru told him that if he fetched Amrtam from devaloka and gave it to the Nagas, she was prepared to release him from the bondage. So Garuda flew up to devaloka, fought with the gods and defeated them. He returned with the pot of Amrtam and gave it to the Nagas. The Nagas went to take their bath after placing the pot on darbha grass spread on the floor. Just then Devendra swooped down and carried away the pot of Amrtam to devaloka. When the Nagas returned after their purifying bath, the pot was not to be seen. In their greed they began to lick the darbha grass on which the pot was placed. The sharp edge of the grass cut their tongues into two. This is why the Nagas (snakes) came to have forked tongues.<ref name=":1">Mani, Vettam. (1975). ''[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft Puranic encyclopaedia : A comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature.]'' Delhi:Motilal Banasidass. (Page 613 and 614)</ref>

गरुडः, पुं, (गरुद्भ्यां पक्षाभ्यां डयते उड्डयते । इति गरुत् + डी + डः । पृषोदरात् तलोपे साधुः । यद्वा, “गिर उडच् ।” उणां ४ । १५५ । इति उडच् ।) स्वनामख्यातपक्षी । तत्- पर्य्यायः । गरुत्मान् २ तार्क्ष्यः ३ वैनतेयः ४ खगेश्वरः ५ नागान्तकः ६ विष्णु रथः ७ सुपर्णः ८ पन्नगाशनः ९ । इत्यमरः । २ । २ । ३२ ॥ महा- वीरः १० पक्षिसिंहः ११ उरगाशनः १२ । इति जटाधरः ॥ शाल्मली १३ हरिवाहनः १४ अमृताहरणः १५ नागाशनः १६ । इति हारा- वली ॥ शाल्मलिस्थः १७ खगेन्द्रः १८ भुजगा- न्तकः १९ तरस्वी २० तार्क्ष्यनायकः २१ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥ * ॥ तस्योत्पत्तिकारणं यथा, -- “यजतः पुत्त्रकामस्य कश्यपस्य प्रजापतेः । साहाय्यमृषयो देवा गन्धर्व्वाश्च ददुः किल ॥ तत्रेध्मानयने शक्रो नियुक्तः कश्यपेन ह । मुनयो वालिखिल्याश्च ये चान्ये देवतागणाः ॥ शक्रस्तु वीर्य्यसदृशमिष्मभारं गिरिप्रभम् । समुत्क्षिप्यानयामास नातिकृच्छ्रादिव प्रभुः ॥ अथापश्यदृषीन् ह्रस्वानङ्गुष्ठोदरवर्ष्मणः । पलाशवृन्तिकामेकां सहितान् वहतः पथि ॥ तान् सर्व्वान् विस्मयाविष्टो वीर्य्योन्मत्तः पुरन्दरः । अवहस्याभ्ययाच्छीघ्रं लङ्घयित्वावमन्य च ॥ तेऽथ रोषसमाविष्टाः सुभृशं जातमन्यवः । आरेभिरे महत् कर्म्म तदा शत्रुभयङ्करम् ॥ कामवीर्य्यः कामगमो देवराजभयप्रदः । इन्द्रोऽन्यो सर्व्वदेवानां भवेदिति यतव्रताः ॥ (व्यूहविशेषः । यथा, मनुः । ७ । १८७ । “वराहमकराभ्यां वा सूच्या वा गरुडेन वा ॥” “सूक्ष्ममुखपश्चाद्भागः पृथुमध्यो वराहव्यूहः । एष एवपृथुतरमध्यो गरुडव्यूहः ।” इति कुल्लूकभट्टः ॥) [https://archive.org/details/ShabdaKalpadrumaComplete/page/n677 Shabda Kalpadruma].

== Gajakacchapa Akhyana ==
After saluting his mother Garuda set out on his quest for Amrta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. He reached Nisadalaya, where while consuming whole lots of Nisadas a brahmin and his wife also happened to get into his throat. Garuda felt their presence immediately in his throat and requested them to get out of his mouth. Accordingly they got out and also blessed Garuda, who continued on his journey. Next Garuda reached the forest where his father Kasyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission and requested him for something to eat. Kasyapa then tells him the [[Gajakacchapa Akhyana (गजकच्छप-आख्यानम्)]] about the origin of the elephant (gaja) and kacchapa (tortoise). (Mahabharata Adiparva Adhyaya 29)

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Devatas]]

Valakhilyas (वालखिल्याः)

2021-01-15T13:42:35Z

WikiSysop: Text replacement - "Aranyakanda" to "Aranyakanda"

{{NeedCitation}}

Valakhilyas (Samskrit : वालखिल्याः) were a group of sixty thousand rshis born to Kratu, one of the Saptarsis (seven hermits), by his wife, Santati. Everyone of them was only the size of a thumb, but they were as bright as the blazing sun and had attained control over their senses. (Visnu Purana, Amsa 1, Chapter 10).

== Introduction ==
The Balakhilyas, also known as Valakhilyas live in the mandala of Surya (solar region). They travel in front of the sun in the shape of birds. They wear hides of animals. They are righteous and are only as big as a thumb. They are very ardent in doing the works of devas (Gods) . They are sinless. There are Valakhilyas living in the lunar region also. They worship the Sun daily. All the world stand firm in truth because of the penance of the Valakhilyas. (M.B., Anusasana Parva, Chapter 141.).

== Garuda's birth and the Valakhilyas ==
A story connecting the birth of Garuda with Valakhilyas occurs in the Puranas.

Once Kasyapa Prajapati performed a sacrifice to obtain children. The work of bringing firewood for the sacrifice was entrusted to Indra and the other devas (Gods) and the Valakhilyas. When Indra was heaping up on heaps pieces of big logs the Valakhilyas who were very small were bringing in chips of wood. Seeing this Indra laughed. The Valakhilyas got angry and stopping the work entrusted to them began to do penance with a view to create another Indra. Knowing this Indra was much flurried. He went to Kasyapa and told him everything. Kasyapa went to the Valakhilyas and pacified them. At this time Vinata, a wife of Kasyapa, was doing penance to obtain a son. Kasyapa said that the penance of the Valakhilyas would not be fruitless and that as a result of their penance a son who would overpower Indra would be born to Vinata. Accordingly a son was born to her. Garuda was that son. The fact that Garuda overthrew Indra when he went to heaven for ambrosia, is well known. (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 31).

Garuda (Eagle) who went to the realm of devas (gods) for Amrta (ambrosia) took rest on the branch of a banyan tree, and that branch was broken from the tree. Sixty thousand Valakhilyas were doing penance hanging head downwards on that branch. Garuda knew this only after the branch was broken. Fearing the curse form them he took the branch in his beak and flew about here and there. At last, according to the advice of Kasyapa, he took the branch to the mount Gandhamadana and without causing any harm to the small hermits placed it there (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 30). When Dusyanta entered the hermitage of Kanva he saw the Valakhilyas doing penance, hanging down on the trees in the vicinity. (M.B., Adi Parva, Chapter 7). In Valmiki Ramayana, Balakanda, Sarga 51, it is mentioned that the Valakhilyas were engaged in prayer and meditations and offering oblations to fire in the hermitage of Vasistha. It is mentioned in Valmiki Ramayana, Balakanda, Sarga 51, that in the period of the Ramayana, in South India, when Ravana was going to the house of Marica, he saw the Valakhilyas doing penance. The Valakhilyas learned the Vedas and Sastras (scriptures) sitting in the chariot of the sun. (Kampa Ramayana, Parvakanda). (Page 101-102, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Garuda's quest for Amrta ==
After saluting his mother Garuda set out on his quest for Amrta. All the fourteen worlds shook at the lashing of his wings. He reached Nisadalaya, where while consuming whole lots of Nisadas a brahmin and his wife also happened to get into his throat. Garuda felt their presence immediately in his throat and requested them to get out of his mouth. Accordingly they got out and also blessed Garuda, who continued on his journey. Next Garuda reached the forest where his father Kasyapa was engaged in tapas. He told him about his mission and requested him for something to eat. Kasyapa replied thus: "You see a pool wherein an elephant and a tortoise are living for long as enemies. Long ago two brothers Vibhavasu and Supratika quarrelled over their paternal wealth and at the height of it Vibhavasu cursed Supratika to become an elephant when Supratika pronounced the counter curse that Vibhavasu should turn out to be a tortoise; You, my son Garuda may eat that elephant and tortoise. 'May your journey for Amrta be crowned with success. Now, Garuda after saluting his father, flew up in the sky carrying in his beak the elephant and the tortoise from the pool. As trees were falling uprooted due to the terrific vibrations caused by the lashing of his wings Garuda did not find a convenient place to sit down to eat his food. While continuing the journey Garuda saw a big tree, its branches spread out in a circumference of a hundred yojanas. But, as soon as Garuda set foot on a branch of the tree it (branch) crumbled down. On that broken branch were the sages called Valakhilyas doing tapas hanging their heads down. Fearing that the sages might fall down Garuda continued his flight holding in his beak the torn branch of the tree. But he could not find a safe place to deposit the branch with the sages. So he came again to Mount Gandhamadana and saw Kasyapa, who apologised to the Valakhilyas on behalf of his son and also explained to them about his mission. The Valakhilyas were pleased and they left the place for the Himalayas. As advised by Kasyapa Garuda deposited the branch of the tree on an uninhabited mountain peak. Garuda ate the elephant and the tortoise there, and therefrom flew to Devaloka (Adi Parva, Chapter 29, 30).

Even before the arrival of Garuda ill omens began appearing in Devaloka. Indra asked Brhaspati for explanation about the ill omens. Brhaspati with his divine eyes saw Garuda approaching Devaloka for Amrta, and he told Indra about Garuda born out of the powers of the tapas of Kasyapa arid the Valakhilyas. He also told that such a fate as the present one befell Indra due to a curse of the Valakhilyas. Indra and the other Devas stood guard over the pot of Amrta ready to repel all possible attacks.

There was a reason for Canada's birth from the powers of the tapas of the Valakhilyas, and also for Indra to be put into the present predicament due to the curse of the Valakhilyas. Kasyapaprajapati, a long time ago, began a terrific yajna for a son, and Indra and the Valakhilyas who numbered more than 60,000 were deputed by Kasyapa to collect firewood for the yajna. The Valakhilyas were only of the size of a thumb, and Indra who very easily collected all the firewood needed for the yajna laughed at the tiny Valakhilyas who were carrying small twigs etc. for firewood. Angered at the insult the Valakhilyas removed themselves to another place nearby and began a yajna directed against Indra who alarmed at it sought the help of Kasyapa who then held peace talks with the Valakhilyas. They transferred their yagasakti (yajnic powers) also to Kasyapa and agreed to be satisfied with the condition that as the result of Kasyapa's yajna a son should be born to him, who (the son) would defeat Indra. Thus, for the time being Indra escaped from the wrath of the Valakhilyas. After the yajna was over Vinata came to Kasyapa and he blessed her with a son wishing that he should become exceptionally strong and powerful, and that was Garuda. (Adi Parva, Chapter 30).

== Lanka island manifests ==
It has been noted above that Garuda on his way to Devaloka rested on a fig tree. That fig is called Subhadra in Valmiki Ramayana. Ravana saw the fig tree around which sages were sitting and which bore marks made by Garuda sitting thereon. (Valmiki Ramayana, [[Ramayana_(रामायणम्)|Aranyakanda]], Canto 35, Verse 26). There is some connection between this tree and Lanka. Garuda had, as directed by Kasyapa, deposited in the sea the branch of the tree on which the Valakhilyas hung in tapas and with which Garuda flew hither and thither fearing about the safety of the Valakhilyas. At the spot in the sea where the branch was deposited sprang up an island like the peak of a mountain. It was this island which in after years became reputed as Lanka. (Kathasaritsagara, Kathamukhalariibaka, Tarariga 4). (Page 281-282, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Hanuman learns Vedas from Surya ==
Being born of Siva and on account of the Sivasakti in him, Hanuman reached boyhood immediately. To learn the four Vedas and the six sastras he chose Surya mentally as his preceptor, and approached him with the request to be taught the Vedas etc. Surya agreed to have Hanuman as his disciple subject to the condition that the latter would not be permitted to sit with the Valakhilyas in his (Surya's) chariot and study. Hanuman agreed to the condition to learn from Surya walking in front of him. With book opened in his hand and concentrating all his attention on the face of Surya Hanuman traversed the sky and within a short period of sixty hours he mastered all the Vedas and the sastras thoroughly well. (Page 308, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Parasurama makes Sri Rama angry ==
When the fame that Sri Rama was the best of Kings spread far and wide Parasurama once went to see Sri Rama. Giving him the bow and arrow with which he had done the mass massacre of the Ksatriyas he challenged him to string it and take aim. With a smile Sri Rama did so and then Parasurama said Rama should draw the string up to his ears. Sri Rama got angry and then on the face, which became fierce, by his anger, Parasurama saw besides himself, Aditya-Vasu-Rudras, Sadhyas, Valakhilyas, Devarsis, oceans, mountains, the Vedas and all such things of this universe. Sri Rama sent out his missile from the bow. The whole universe was thrown into chaos. Thunder and lightning rocked the world. Heavy rains flooded the whole land space. Burning stars and meteors fell to the ground. Parasurama then knew that Sri Rama was the incarnation of Mahavisnu and he stood bowing before him. Ashamed of his defeat he took leave of Sri Rama and went to Mahendragiri. When he reached there he found he had lost all his brilliance. Then the manes appeared and advised him to go and bathe in the river Vadhusara. Accordingly Parasurama went and bathed in the river and regained his lost brilliance. (Chapter 99, Vana Parva). (Page 571, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Lord Siva's views on Valakhilyas ==
Eighty-eight thousand Valakhilyas were born from the mind of Brahma. They emaciated their bodies by constant baths, fasting and worship of Siva. Though they worshipped Siva thus for one thousand divya years, he did not appear in front of them. Afterwards, when Parvati was travelling by sky one day, the latter saw and took pity on the Valakhilyas and told Siva thus: "These maharsis are suffering like anything. For my sake, you should put an end to their sufferings. Has their evil fate no end? They are reduced to mere skin and bones, and yet they are denied realization." Smilingly Siva told Parvati as follows "You do not know the real course of righteousness. These people do not understand righteousness; they are not free from lust and anger. They are mere fools." At these words of Siva, Parvati told him thus: If things be as you have said please show me their nature, I feel interested. Then Siva asked Parvati to remain where she was, telling her that he would go to the Valakhilyas and show her how they behaved. Accordingly Siva went to them. Siva approached the Valakhilyas in the guise of a handsome youth, wearing the Vanamala garland on his head, holding the alms bowl in his hands and completely in the nude and requested for alms. The Womenfolk of the Advaitins were much attracted by the handsome youth and came to him with a lot of fruits, roots etc. by way of alms. (Page 729, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

Siva incarnated in the hermitage of the Valakhilyas in the mount of Gandhamadana during the period of Varaha Kalpa (Kalpa one day of Brahma or the period of 14 manus) . It is seen in Siva Purana, Satapatha Brahmana that Bali had four sons, called Sudhama, Kasyapa, Vasistha and Virajas. (Page 104, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Disscussion ==
60,000 Valakhilyas were born to Kratu as per (Visnu Purana, Amsa 1, Chapter 10).

It is stated in Mahabharata, Adi Parva, Chapter 65, Stanza 9, that the hermits called Valakhilyas were the sons of Kratu. (Page 417, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

The extremely bright Valakhilyas were born to Kratu by his wife Sannati. (Agni Purana, Chapter 20).

88,000 Valakhilyas were born from the mind of Brahma. (Page 729, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== Duties in the month of Phalguna ==
In the month of Phalguna the Aditya Visnu, the serpent Asvatara, the celestial maid Rambha, the Gandharva Suvarcas, the Yaksa Satyajit, the hermit Visvamitra, and the giant Yajnopeta travel in the chariot. These seven persons live in the region of the Sun in their time. The hermits praise the Sun; the gandharvas sing; the celestial maids dance; the giants walk behind as guards. The serpents prepare the horses to be yoked; the Yaksas hold the bridle and the Valakhilyas stand round the Sun. These groups of seven in each month are responsible for heat, coldness, rain etc. (Visnu Purana, Amsa 2, Chapter 8). (Page 770, Puranic Encyclopedia - Vettam Maṇi)

== References ==
[[Category:Puranas]]
[[Category:Rishis]]

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{| class="mobile" role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"


| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:100%;border:1px solid #5B1010; border-radius:8px; padding:0; background-color:#dbb55321; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" |
<h2 id="mp-itn-h2_8" style="margin:0.5em; background:#f5deb3; font-family:inherit; font-size:130%; font-weight:bold; border-radius:8px;color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;text-align:center;">Do you know?</h2>
<div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;">{{Do you know}}</div>
|}

{| class="nomobile" role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"

| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:33%;border:1px solid #5B1010; border-radius:8px; padding:0; background-color:#dbb55321; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" |
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2_6" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#f5deb3; font-family:inherit; font-size:130%; font-weight:bold; border-radius:8px; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;text-align:center;">Dharmawiki Launch On January 6, 2019</h2>
<div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;">{{Dharma Point of View}}</div>
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |

| id="mp-center" class="MainPageBG" style="width:33%;border:1px solid #5B1010; border-radius:8px; padding:0; background-color:#dbb55321; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" |
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2_7" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#f5deb3; font-family:inherit; font-size:130%; font-weight:bold; border-radius:8px; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;text-align:center;">Why Dharmawiki</h2>
<div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;">{{Why Dharmawiki}}</div>
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |

| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:33%;border:1px solid #5B1010; border-radius:8px; padding:0; background-color:#dbb55321; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" |
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2_8" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#f5deb3; font-family:inherit; font-size:130%; font-weight:bold; border-radius:8px; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;text-align:center;">Featured Video</h2>
<div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;">{{Video FP}}</div>

|}


{| class="mobile" role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
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{| class="mobile" role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:100%;border:1px solid #5B1010; border-radius:8px; padding:0; background-color:#dbb55321; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" |
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2_9" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#f5deb3; font-family:inherit; font-size:130%; font-weight:bold; border-radius:8px; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;text-align:center;">Dharmawiki Launch On January 6, 2019</h2>
<div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;">{{Dharma Point of View}}</div>
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |
|}
{| class="mobile" role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
| id="mp-center" class="MainPageBG" style="width:100%;border:1px solid #5B1010; border-radius:8px; padding:0; background-color:#dbb55321; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" |
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2_10" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#f5deb3; font-family:inherit; font-size:130%; font-weight:bold; border-radius:8px; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;text-align:center;">Why Dharmawiki</h2>
<div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;">{{Why Dharmawiki}}</div>
| style="border:1px solid transparent;" |
|}
{| class="mobile" role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:100%;border:1px solid #5B1010; border-radius:8px; padding:0; background-color:#dbb55321; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" |
<h2 id="mp-dyk-h2_11" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#f5deb3; font-family:inherit; font-size:130%; font-weight:bold; border-radius:8px; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;text-align:center;">Featured Video</h2>
<div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;">{{Video FP}}</div>
|}

[[ Acknowledgments]]<p style="color:green;font-size:12px;">'''*We are grateful to [https://dcfusa.org/ Dharma Civilization Foundation] for providing hosting infrastructure for the website.'''</p>
<p style="color:green;font-size:12px;">'''*We thank Prof. K. Ramasubramanian and his team (IITB) for the Shobhika Font used on this site.'''</p><p style="color:green;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold">*Dharmawiki Banner is a "Permitted to Use Copyrighted Image" from the Book Titled "Ancient Indian Science and its Relevance to the Modern World" Published by Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati. Dharmawiki is thankful for their contribution.</p>

<noinclude> {{noexternallanglinks}}{{#if:{{Wikipedia:Main_Page/Tomorrow}}||}}</noinclude>__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__

MediaWiki:Sidebar

2020-03-07T08:46:59Z

WikiSysop:

* navigation
** mainpage|mainpage-description
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** recentchanges-url|recentchanges
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** helppage|help
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** Special:Contributionscores|contributions
* TOOLBOX

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2020-03-07T08:46:28Z

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MediaWiki:Sidebar

2020-03-01T18:38:34Z

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MediaWiki:Sidebar

2020-03-01T18:37:46Z

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Donate

2020-03-01T18:26:59Z

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<p style="color:#d85611;font-size:28px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold">Donate to Dharmawiki</p>
[[File:Donate.jpeg|thumb| '''<big>Scan to Donate</big>''']]
<p style="color:#d85611;font-size:28px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold"></p><p style="color:green;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">Dharmawiki's vision is to be the most comprehensive knowledge repository of topics related to Sanatana Dharma and be the link between the past and the future, revitalizing people to lead a dharmik jivana vidhana. In this endeavor we seek one and all like-minded people to contribute to rebuild the dharmik communities based on Sanatana Dharma.</p>
== Your Contributions ==
Your contributions to Dharmawiki are invaluable in any of the following modes
* providing technical support
* making monetary contributions
* writing or editing articles
* provide scholarly advise and research material on topics related to the theme of Dharmawiki
* provide institutional services to run the project
* marketing to reach out to school children and people
* provide book references
* organize conferences and workshops
* introduce scholars who are remotely located
* provide local legends and authentic photographs of our ancient temples
You can add to the evergrowing list of activities that can support and expand Dharmawiki's plans and we look forward for your support to this platform.

== Our Projects ==
Your financial contributions at present supports a few of our projects such as
# Consultation payments for traditional scholars
# Make video productions of traditional scholarly inputs
# Support travel costs to reach out to remote scholars
# Procure technical and software requirements
# Support Research Assistants
# Conducting conferences and workshops
# Translations of articles
# Transcriptions of videos
# Support institutional requirements
# Purchase required reference books (rare and valuable books)

== Online Modes of Donation ==
<p style="color:green;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">Scan the above QR code to pay through any popular modes of payment (PayTM, Gpay, PhonePe, BHIM, Amazon, etc)</p>
== Tax Exemption ==
Donors in India can claim tax exemption against 80G, for any donation.

== Account Details ==
'''Wire Transfer / Internet Banking (NEFT/RTGS/IMPS):''' '''Donations for Dharmawiki through online and wire transfers can be sent to:'''

Account name: '''Sri Chaitanya Seva Trust'''

Bank: Axis Bank

Branch: Mira Road, Mumbai, Maharashtra

Type of account: Savings account

Account number: '''914010055634798'''

IFSC CODE: UTIB0000573

'''For any queries please mail us on <span style="color:#d85611;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">dharmawiki2018@gmail.com</span>'''

== Transaction Details ==
When you have finished making a donation to Dharmawiki, kindly mail following details to <span style="color:#d85611;font-size:14px;font-weight:bold">dharmawiki2018@gmail.com</span>
# Your Name
# Current Profession
# Your Location
# Transaction Reference
This information will help us in acknowledging and thanking you for the cause.

[[Category:About Dharmawiki]]

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2020-03-01T18:24:28Z

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<p style="color:#d85611;font-size:28px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold">Donate to Dharmawiki</p>
[[File:Donate.jpeg|thumb| '''<big>Scan to Donate</big>''']]
<p style="color:#d85611;font-size:28px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold"></p><p style="color:green;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">Dharmawiki's vision is to be the most comprehensive knowledge repository of topics related to Sanatana Dharma and be the link between the past and the future, revitalizing people to lead a dharmik jivana vidhana. In this endeavor we seek one and all like-minded people to contribute to rebuild the dharmik communities based on Sanatana Dharma.</p>
== Your Contributions ==
Your contributions to Dharmawiki are invaluable in any of the following modes
* providing technical support
* making monetary contributions
* writing or editing articles
* provide scholarly advise and research material on topics related to the theme of Dharmawiki
* provide institutional services to run the project
* marketing to reach out to school children and people
* provide book references
* organize conferences and workshops
* introduce scholars who are remotely located
* provide local legends and authentic photographs of our ancient temples
You can add to the evergrowing list of activities that can support and expand Dharmawiki's plans and we look forward for your support to this platform.

== Our Projects ==
Your financial contributions at present supports a few of our projects such as
# Consultation payments for traditional scholars
# Make video productions of traditional scholarly inputs
# Support travel costs to reach out to remote scholars
# Procure technical and software requirements
# Support Research Assistants
# Conducting conferences and workshops
# Translations of articles
# Transcriptions of videos
# Support institutional requirements
# Purchase required reference books (rare and valuable books)

== Online Modes of Donation ==
<p style="color:green;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">Scan the bar code to pay through any popular modes of payment (PayTM, Gpay, PhonePe, BHIM, Amazon, etc)</p>
== Tax Exemption ==
Donors in India can claim tax exemption against 80G, for any donation.

== Account Details ==
'''Wire Transfer / Internet Banking (NEFT/RTGS/IMPS):''' '''Donations for Dharmawiki through online and wire transfers can be sent to:'''

Account name: '''Sri Chaitanya Seva Trust'''

Bank: Axis Bank

Branch: Mira Road, Mumbai, Maharashtra

Type of account: Savings account

Account number: '''914010055634798'''

IFSC CODE: UTIB0000573

'''For any queries please mail us on <span style="color:#d85611;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">dharmawiki2018@gmail.com</span>'''

== Transaction Details ==
When you have finished making a donation to Dharmawiki, kindly mail following details to <span style="color:#d85611;font-size:14px;font-weight:bold">dharmawiki2018@gmail.com</span>
# Your Name
# Current Profession
# Your Location
# Transaction Reference
This information will help us in acknowledging and thanking you for the cause.

[[Category:About Dharmawiki]]

Donate

2020-03-01T18:22:58Z

WikiSysop:

<p style="color:#d85611;font-size:28px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold">Donate to Dharmawiki</p>
[[File:Donate.jpeg|thumb|'''Scan to Donate''']]
<p style="color:#d85611;font-size:28px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold"></p><p style="color:green;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">Dharmawiki's vision is to be the most comprehensive knowledge repository of topics related to Sanatana Dharma and be the link between the past and the future, revitalizing people to lead a dharmik jivana vidhana. In this endeavor we seek one and all like-minded people to contribute to rebuild the dharmik communities based on Sanatana Dharma.</p>
== Your Contributions ==
Your contributions to Dharmawiki are invaluable in any of the following modes
* providing technical support
* making monetary contributions
* writing or editing articles
* provide scholarly advise and research material on topics related to the theme of Dharmawiki
* provide institutional services to run the project
* marketing to reach out to school children and people
* provide book references
* organize conferences and workshops
* introduce scholars who are remotely located
* provide local legends and authentic photographs of our ancient temples
You can add to the evergrowing list of activities that can support and expand Dharmawiki's plans and we look forward for your support to this platform.

== Our Projects ==
Your financial contributions at present supports a few of our projects such as
# Consultation payments for traditional scholars
# Make video productions of traditional scholarly inputs
# Support travel costs to reach out to remote scholars
# Procure technical and software requirements
# Support Research Assistants
# Conducting conferences and workshops
# Translations of articles
# Transcriptions of videos
# Support institutional requirements
# Purchase required reference books (rare and valuable books)

== Online Modes of Donation ==
<p style="color:green;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">Scan the bar code to pay through any popular modes of payment (PayTM, Gpay, PhonePe, BHIM, Amazon, etc)</p>
== Tax Exemption ==
Donors in India can claim tax exemption against 80G, for any donation.

== Account Details ==
'''Wire Transfer / Internet Banking (NEFT/RTGS/IMPS):''' '''Donations for Dharmawiki through online and wire transfers can be sent to:'''

Account name: '''Sri Chaitanya Seva Trust'''

Bank: Axis Bank

Branch: Mira Road, Mumbai, Maharashtra

Type of account: Savings account

Account number: '''914010055634798'''

IFSC CODE: UTIB0000573

'''For any queries please mail us on <span style="color:#d85611;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold">dharmawiki2018@gmail.com</span>'''

== Transaction Details ==
When you have finished making a donation to Dharmawiki, kindly mail following details to <span style="color:#d85611;font-size:14px;font-weight:bold">dharmawiki2018@gmail.com</span>
# Your Name
# Current Profession
# Your Location
# Transaction Reference
This information will help us in acknowledging and thanking you for the cause.

[[Category:About Dharmawiki]]

File:Donate.jpeg

2020-03-01T18:13:45Z

WikiSysop:

User Poll

2020-02-18T07:56:43Z

WikiSysop: Created page with "<poll> Do you like this poll ? Yes, it is awesome. Yes. No, I do not like polls. </poll>"

<poll>
Do you like this poll ?
Yes, it is awesome.
Yes.
No, I do not like polls.
</poll>

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2020-02-18T07:52:25Z

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2020-02-18T07:51:57Z

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