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Shabda Bodha (शाब्दबोधः)

2018-11-18T14:20:08Z

Sumit: adding content

Shabdabodha (Samskrit : ) refers to the awareness and information of things hitherto unknown (to the listeners) to convey which a speaker utters words generated by shabda arranged in intelligible sentences. The awareness generated by such shabda — in the form of a sentence – is called "Shabdabodha", cognition of sentence meaning or awareness of the relation (of word-meanings).<ref name=":0" /> The process through which the cognition of the sentence-meaning arises involves many processes such as yogyata (fitness) akanksha (expectance), asatti (proximity) and tatparya (import). Almost all schools of darshanas, vyakarana and alankara shastras have dealt with this topic extensively.

== Introduction ==
Shabda bodha is extensively dealt with in establishing [[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|Pramanas]] in darshana shastras. All [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|pramanas in astika darshanas]] discuss about shabda pramana in one form or other and primarily differ in this point from the nastika darshanas. It is considered as an distinct pramana by Naiyyayikas, whereas Vaiseshikas do not admit Shabda as an independent pramana, they classify it under Anumana pramana.

Bharthari says:<ref name=":0">Dr. N. S. Ramanuja Tatacharya. (2005) ''[https://archive.org/details/ShabdaBodhamimansaAnInquiryIntoIndianTheoriesOfVerbalCognitionN.S.RamanujaTatacharya/page/n39 Shabdabodhamimamsa. An Inquiry into Indian Theories of Verbal Cognition. Volume 1: The Sentence and its Significance.]'' New Delhi : Rastriya Sanskrit Samsthan</ref>

"It is words that form the bases of meanings, purposes, activities and truth". (Vākyapadiya, Brahmakānda 13)

== Etymology of Shabda ==
Shabdakalpadruma defines the word शब्दः as श्रोत्रग्राह्यगुणपदार्थ-विशेषः। The synonyms for Shabda according to Amarakosha are १ निनादः २ निनदः ३ ध्वनिः ४ ध्वानः ५ रवः ६ स्वनः ७ स्वानः ८ निर्घोषः ९ निर्हादः १० नादः ११ निःस्वानः १२ निःस्वनः १३ आरवः १४ आरावः १५ संरावः १६ विरावः इत्यमरः।

Shabda is two-fold as word and sentence. A word is defined as that which has the meaning or signifying power (sakti). It is also defined as a unity of articulate letter-sounds having a (verbal or case-) ending.

Shabda', in the technical sense of a sentence (that can be a means of knowledge) is defined by Gautama as that which is uttered by a trustworthy person.<ref name=":0" />

== शब्दलक्षणम् ॥ Shabda Lakshana - Nyaya Darshana ==
Gautama in his Nyāyasūtra defines sabda or verbal testimony as <blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः।।७।। āptopadeśaḥ śabdaḥ <ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote>The communication made by a reliable person is Shabda (word). <blockquote>अाप्तः खलु साक्षात्कृतधर्मा ।... (Vats. Bhas. of Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.7) <ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote>That person is called 'Apta', 'reliable' who possesses the direct (साक्षात्) and right knowledge of things (Page 50 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>). The word upadeśa etymologically means that through which something is communicated. And that is the sentence that gives rise to the cognition of something unknown hitherto.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>पूरणप्रदाहपाटनानुपलब्धेः च सम्बन्धाभावः ।।५४।। {सिद्धान्तसूत्र} or शब्दार्थव्यवस्थानातप्रतिषेधः ।।५४।। Nyay, Sutr. 2.1.54 (Check the Sutra)</blockquote><blockquote>Bhashya in Page no 141 of Reference <ref name=":5" /> to be checked and incorporated</blockquote>Vātsyāyana in his commentary on the Nyāyasūtra 2.1.54 states that a sentence consists of several units in the form of two or more words. Thus shabda or verbal testimony is that which gives rise to the valid cognition of the sentence-meaning. And it is of the nature of a sentence consisting of a group of words. <blockquote>न साध्य-समत्वात् ६२ (Nyay. Sutr. 3.2.62)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3 Ahnika 2])</ref></blockquote>In his commentary on the Nyāyasūtra 3.2.62 he says that the articulate alphabetic sounds are the ultimate constituents of a sentence. There arises the auditory perception of each and every articulate alphabetic sound when it is uttered. One construes two or more sounds in the form of a word. From the cognition of the word one arrives at the cognition of its meaning. One then construes two or more words in the form of a sentence and from the cognition of it, one gets at the cognition of the relation of the word-meanings - the relation which is the sentence-meaning.

The conclusive view of the Naiyāyika-s is that a word is a group of articulate alphabetic sounds and a sentence is a group of words. A group or aggregate is not distinct from the units comprising it. Even when it is said that a word consists of several articulate alphabetic sounds and a sentence consists of several words, it comes to this, that articulate alphabetical sounds manifested in a single cognition constitute a sentence. It must now be enquired as to how the articulate alphabetical sounds could be viewed as word or sentence.

== Vakya Lakshana - Mimamsa Darshana ==
Like the Naiyāyika-s, generally, Mīmāmsaka-s accept that the group of articulate alphabetic phonemes is a word and the group of words is a sentence. But they maintain that the articulate phonemes are eternal, while the Naiyāyika-s treat them as noneternal. Accordingly there is a subtle difference in the mode of interpretation of the varna-s attaining the form of words and sentences.

Sabara in his commentary on the aphorism '''2.2.26'''' of Jaimini says that the words which will serve a unitary purpose constitute

'''atulyatvāt tu vākyayor gune tasya pratīyate JS 2.2.26'''.

one sentence.'''ŚB 2.2.26''' Again in his commentary on the aphorism '''2.1.46,''' he states that the group of words conveying a single meaning is the sentence. From this it is clear that according to Sabara a sentence is a group of words.

'''Kumārila too subscribes to the above view. Sālikānātha in his Prakaranapañcikā declares that according to Prabhākara a sentence is the group of words. And the sentence-meaning is the collection of word-meanings.'''

The Mīmāmsaka-s do not admit a word as distinct from letters (varna-s or articulate letter- sounds) and also a centence as distinct from words. Hence it is necessary to discuss the manner in which the letters attain the state of a word and a sentence.

Sabara explains this in this manner — "Upavarsa is of the view that the letters g, au and visarjanīya constitute the word gauh. The word sabda is well known in public usage as signifying an entity that is auditorily perceived. And letters alone are comprehended by the sense of hearing and not anything different from it",

Now the question arises as to how the letters attain the status of a word when they cannot be grouped together. Sabara answers by saying that it is the last letter associated with the latent impressions born out of the cognitions of each preceding letter which gives rise to the cognition of the word-meaning. Extending this line of explanation, it is said that the last word associated with the latent impressions born out of the cognitions of each preceding word is the sentence. According to the Bhātta school, individual words convey their own meanings. And the word-meanings convey the sentence-meaning, not the sentence as a whole.

'''1 yāvanti padāni ekam prayojanam abhinirvartayanti tāvanti padāni eka m vākyam ŚB 2.2.26.'''

'''2 arthaikatvād ekam vākyam sākānkşam ced vibhāge syāt JS 2.1.46.'''

== Vakya Lakshana - Samkhya Darshana ==
The Sānkhya school accepts that letters which are non-eternal are denotative of the meanings. In this connection they reject the theory of sphoța accepted by the Grammarians and the theory that letters are eternal accepted by the Mīmāmsaka-s. Like the Naiyayika-s, the Sānkhya school admits that the group of letters is a word and the group of words is a sentence.

== Vakya Lakshana - Yoga Darshana ==
According to the Yoga system, we falsely superimpose an identity among a word, its object and the idea conveyed. Conditioned by conventional meaning, the letters are uttered in a particular order and they become the content of a single cognition and thus constitute a single unit, i.e. the word. The word appears to be indivisible; it does not have any reference to the sequence of letters. It is manifested by the operation of the recognition of the final letter. Thus the Yoga system accepts the nature of a sentence similar to that of the Grammarians.

== Vakya Lakshana - Vedanta Darshana ==
'''Advaitavedānta'''

The Advaitin-s and others reject the doctrine of sphota (speechbuds or language potentials) and admit that the letters which are the objects of recollection that results from the latent impressions born out of the cognition of each letter is the word or the sentence. Prakāśātman in his Šābdanirnaya states so. Sankara in his commentary on the Vedāntasūtra 1.3.28 states:

Although all the letters in a word are cognised, still like the ants thanks to their sequential configuration generate in us the idea of a line in a definite order, the letters generate in us the notion of a word thanks to their definite sequence.

From this it is known that it is only letters in a specific order that constitute a word. And the letters or words in a due order constitute a sentence.

'''Visishitadvaita'''

The Visistādvaitin-s too accept that the letters manifested in a single cognition constitute a word and the words manifested in a single cognition constitute a sentence. Vedāntadeśika in his Tattvamuktākalāpa and in his commentary Sarvārthasiddhi thereon sets forth this view.

'''Dvaita'''

The Dvaitin-s too subscribe to the view that letters constitute a word and the words constitute a sentence. Vyāsatīrtha in his Tarkatāndava states that Jayatīrtha in his Pramānapaddhati has defined a word as letters having a termination of inflectional ending of a case or of the person of a tense or mood at their end, and a sentence as words having syntactic expectancy, congruity and proximity.

== Vakya Lakshana - Vyakarana Shastra ==
The final conclusion of the Grammarians is that an utterable linguistic unit which is indivisible is the sentence. Bharthari in his Vākyapadīya has set forth eight views regarding the nature of a sentence; and, they are as follows:

==== '''3.1.4.1. A word having a verbal suffix at its end is a sentence.''' ====
This does not mean that only the single word with a verbal suffix is a sentence, because that would contradict the common experience of viewing a sentence as the group of words terminating in either sup or tin, as for instance, "Steer the cow with a stick, O! Devadatta". What is meant here is that sometimes even the word having a verbal suffix at its end suffices as a sentence. There are certain cases where there arises the verbal cognition from the mere use of a verb. For example the use of the word "shut" (pidhehi). Here, even without the noun expressive of the notion of a case (kāraka), there arises the cognition of the sentence-meaning, viz, shut the door.

==== '''3.1.4.2. A group of words is a sentence''' ====
According to this view the mere word "shut" is not a sentence. But there is the importation of the word 'door' and it is the group of these two words that must be viewed as a sentence. And just as a verb by itself does not constitute a sentence, even so a mere word having a case-ending such as 'door is not a sentence, as the activity of shutting is not invariably known by the utterance of the word 'door'.:

==== '''3.1.4.3. The universal, present in words is a sentence''' ====
According to this view there is a universal or generic feature in a group of words; and it is a sentence significative of the sentence meaning

==== '''3.1.4.4. An indivisible word is a sentences''' ====
According to this view a sentence is one unit devoid of parts. And letters or words have no real existence therein.

==== '''3.1.4.5. The order of words is a sentence''' ====
The words in succession constitute a sentence (vākyasphota). According to this view, the latter is divisible and is generated by the group of words.

==== '''3.1.4.6. The imaginary aggregate of words in the intellect is a sentence''' ====
Division of words is only a conceptual construction in our intellect according to this view. The real sentence is undivided and does not have words in it. The sentence as structured exists only in our minds.

==== '''3.1.4.7. The first word is a sentence''' ====
According to this view a sentence is divisible and is generated by a group of words. And the first word in the group is the sentence. The other words of the group are helpful in identifying the significative relation of the first word to its meaning. For example, the expression sāksāt kriyate. Here the word sākṣāt conveys the meaning of perceptional knowledge. And the word kriyate is only indicative of the significative relation of the word sākṣāt to its meaning.

==== '''3.1.4.8. Each word having syntactic expectancy with the other word constitutes a sentence''' ====
Jaimini in his aphorism 2.4.46 affirms the view that a group of words each one dependent upon the other word for its meaning is a sentence.

==== '''The author of Vārttika (Kātyāyana) defines a sentence in two ways:''' ====
1) the verbal suffix qualified by avyaya and kāraka, and, 2) the one which has a single verb. These two definitions do not differ from the definition set forth earlier, viz. a sentence is a group of words 3.1.4.2.

Of the eight definitions of sentence, those described under the heads 3.1.4 3; 3.1.4.4; 3.1.4.6 treat a sentence as a indivisible unit; and those described under the heads 3.1.4.1; 3.1.4.5; 3.1.4.2; 3.1.4.7; 3.1.4.8, as a divisible one.

Punyarāja in his commentary on the Vākyapadīya states that according to Bhartrhari the Grammarians view a sentence to be of the nature of sphota; it is an indivisible unit; the sentence-meaning is pratibhā and the relation between a sentence and its meaning is the superimposed identity (adhyāsa).

== References ==

ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)

2018-11-18T13:26:30Z

Sumit: /* Gautama Nyaya Sutras 7 and 8 */

Shad Pramanas (Samskrit: षड्प्रमाणाः) comprise the six pramanas accepted variously in the ancient astika darshanas, the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] (Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) and Vedanta (also known as Uttara Mimamsa)).

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==
The theories of cognition (Pramana) formulated by the ancient thinkers, arose out of a need to understand valid cognition and Nyaya darshana offers the definition and lakshanas for Pramanas. Different Darshana shastras have accepted the need and function of Pramana but they have their unique principles about the nature and scope of the Pramanas. (Pages 39 to 42 of Reference <ref name=":32">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref>). Both Astika and Nastika schools of thought have their own explanations for the pramanas accepted by them, thus atleast ten pramanas have been put forth in various Darshanas. Of these pramanas, six of them are accepted in varying numbers by each school of Darshana shastras. Here we discuss briefly what the different kinds of pramanas are and of them the shad pramanas which are accepted by the Astika darshanas.

==षड्प्रमाणाः ॥ Shad Pramanas==
Pramanas though are more than ten in number, six of them (Shad Pramanas) accepted by astika schools of darshanas are discussed here.
#प्रत्यक्षम् ॥ Pratyaksha (perception)
#अनुमानम् ॥ Anumana (inference)
#शब्दः ॥ Shabda (Word) or आगमः ॥ Agama (verbal testimony)
#उपमानम् ॥ Upamana (comparison)
#अर्थापत्तिः ॥ Arthaapatti (presumption)
#अभावः ॥ Abhaava or अनुपलब्धिः ॥ Anupalabdhi (negation or non-apprehension)
To facilitate ease of explaining the various pramanas the sutras of Nyaya darshana have been used to explain four of these six pramanas in the present article. It may be noted that while these same concepts are accepted in other darshanas also they are in some instances assumed and not explicitly mentioned as sutras. Gautama in his Nyayasutras lays down that there are four kinds of Pramanas. <blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।।३।। {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3) <ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote>Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Analogy) and Shabda (Words) are the Pramanas. (Page 36 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>) Now we proceed to discuss the six pramanas.

==प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणम् ॥ Pratyaksha Pramana==
Knowledge which is produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object is called pratyaksha pramana. Pratyaksha pramana is the primary and fundamental of all the sources of valid knowledge and it is universally recognized so by all schools of philosophy. According to Nyaya , perception is not the only source of our knowledge, but is the basis of the other sources or means of knowledge.

Pratyaksha (Perception) is a source of direct knowledge and leads one to apprehend the reality. All other means of knowledge are indirect sources of apprehending reality. Example: When the sense-organ, i.e. eye, comes in direct contact with a pot, there arises a perceptual knowledge of pot.

==== Etymology ====
Pratyaksha pramana (Samskrit : प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणम्) is made of two words Prati (प्रति) and Aksha (अक्ष), which literally means "In front of the eyes".

==== Gautama Nyaya Sutra 4 ====
<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम् ।।४।।{प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Meaning : Sense perception is that cognition which is
#produced by the contact (सन्निकर्षाद्) of the sense organ (इन्द्रियम्) with the object (अर्थेः).
#अव्यपदेश्यं not expressible by words
#अव्यभिचारि not erroneous, non-deviatedness
#व्यवसायात्मकं doubtless with crystal clear clarity (well-defined)

==== Vatsyayana Bhasyam ====
The bhashyam for Nyaya sutra (1.1.4)<blockquote>इन्द्रियस्यार्थेन सन्निकर्षाद् उत्पद्यते यत् ज्ञानं, तत् प्रत्यक्षम् ॥ (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.4) (Page 59 of Reference <ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref>)</blockquote>The knowledge that arises by the means contact of sense organ with the object.

The constant connection of the means of valid cognition (Pramana) with the object (artha) is called nondeviatedness (अव्यभिचारित्वम्).

Annambhatta's Tarkasangraha, also ascertains the concept given by Nyaya sutras about Pratyaksha pramana. इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षजन्यं ज्ञानं प्रत्यक्षम्। <ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Pratyakshanirupanam])</ref>

==== Prabhakara's Purva Mimamsa ====
Prabhakara defines 'Pratyaksha' in a unique way quite different from other siddhantas. According to him Pratyaksha is 'sakshath pratitihi' or direct apprehension. Each act of Prayaksha (perception) consists of three factors.<ref name=":2">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (Reprint 1978) [https://archive.org/details/jha-purvamimamsa_201412/page/n46 ''The Prabhakara School of Purva Mimamsa''.] Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</ref>
# the direct apprehension of the object (which proceeds directly from sense organs in contact with the object).
# the apprehending person or subject
# the act of cognition or apprehension
This distinctive view of Prabhakara has been called the Triputipratyakshavada and is discussed at length in [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas in Astika Darshanas]].

==अनुमानप्रमाणम् ॥ Anumana Pramana==
The second instrument of valid knowledge is Anumana Pramana.

==== Gautama Nyaya Sutra 5 ====
<blockquote>अथ तत्पूर्वकं त्रिविधं अनुमानं पूर्ववत् शेषवत् सामान्यतोदृष्टं च ।।५।। {अनुमानलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Meaning : After perception comes Inference which is led up to by perception; it is of three kinds - Purvavat (पूर्ववत्), Sheshavat (शेषवत्), and Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्).

==== Vatsyayana Bhashyam ====
The meaning of the above sutra is explained by Vatsyayana bhashya as follows<blockquote>तत्पूर्वकमित्यनेन लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबन्धदर्शनं लिङ्गदर्शनं चाभिसंबध्यते । लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबध्द्योर्दर्शनेन लिङ्गस्मृतिरभिसंबध्यते । स्मृत्या लिङ्गदर्शनेन चाऽप्रत्यक्षः अर्थः अनुमीयते । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : The expression तत्पूर्वकम् meaning 'led up to perception' refers to the darshana (perception obtained through the indriyas and manas) of the relation between the Linga (लिङ्ग । mark) and Lingi (लिङ्गि । object indicated by the mark) and also darshana of Linga itself. The darshana of the relation between linga (mark) and lingi (object) also implies Smrti (स्मृतिः । remembrance) of linga. Thus by means of Smrti and darshana of Linga (mark) the Apratyaksha (अप्रत्यक्षः । non-perceptible) object (अर्थः) is inferred (अनुमानम् । anumana). (Page 26 of Reference<ref name=":6" />). Thus anumana depends totally on previous experiences through pratyaksha and this knowledge follows other kinds of knowledge. Example : where there is smoke there is fire.

==== Tarkasamgraha ====
According to Annambhatta's Tarkasamgraha Anumana is<blockquote>अनुमितिकरणमनुमानम्॥१॥ परामर्शजन्यं ज्ञानमनुमितिः॥२॥ व्याप्तिविशिष्टपक्षधर्मताज्ञानं परामर्शः ।<ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Anumana Nirupana])</ref></blockquote>

==== Kinds of Anumana ====
Anumana is of three kinds with each of them having two definitions with elaborately described examples by Vatsyayana for the Nyaya Sutras given by Gautama.
=====Purvavat (पूर्ववत्)=====
<blockquote>पूर्ववदिति, यत्र कारणेन कार्य्यमनुमीयते। यथा मेधोन्नत्या भविष्यति वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which the effect is inferred from the cause; e.g. when we see the clouds rising, we infer that there will be rain. The cause is 'purva' or prior to the effect ; hence that in which the Anumana is based on the cognition of the cause has been called Purvavat. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>अथवा पूर्ववदिति, यत्र यथा पूर्व्वं प्रत्यक्षभूतयोः अन्यतरदर्शनेन अन्यतरस्य अप्रत्यक्षस्य अनुमानम् । यथा धूमेनाग्निरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which out of two things perceived on some former occasion, perception of one of the two things leads to inference of the other (which is not being perceived); e.g. when fire is inferred from smoke. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
=====Sheshavat (शेषवत्)=====
<blockquote>शेषवत् यत्र कार्य्येण कारणमनुमीयते । पूर्व्वोदकविपरीतमुदकं, नद्याः पूर्णत्वमं, शीध्रत्वञ्च दृष्ट्वा स्रोतसोऽनुमीयते भूता वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Sheshavat Anumana is that in which the cause is inferred from the effect; e.g. when we see that the water of the river is not like what it used to be, and that the stream is fuller and the current swifter, we infer that there has been rain in the catchment areas. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>शेषवत् नाम परिशेषः, स च प्रसक्तप्रतिषेधेऽन्यत्र अप्रसाङ्गात् शिष्यमाणे सम्प्रत्ययः । यथा सदनित्यमित्येवमादिना द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषेण सामान्यविशेषसमवायेभ्यो विभक्तस्य शब्दस्य तस्मिन् द्रव्यकर्मगुणसंशये न द्रव्यमेकद्रव्यत्वात्, न कर्म शब्दान्तरहेतुत्वात्, यस्तु शिष्यते, सोऽयमिति शब्दस्य गुणत्वप्रतिपत्तिः । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>The word sheshavat means remainder; with regard to an object there are certain possibilities - and some of these possibilities are eliminated; and there being no other possibilities - when the remaining possibility is cognised in relation to the said object, this cognition is Sheshavat. e.g. with regard to Sound, we find that it is an real entity (सत्) and is transient (अनित्यमम्) etc; and as these properties (being an entity and being transient etc) are found to be common to Substances (द्रव्यम्), Qualities (गुणः) and Actions (कर्म) only, their presence in Sound distinguishes it from the remaining categories of the Commoness (सामान्यम्), Specialness (विशेष्यम्) and Samavaya (समवाय । Pervasiveness) (all of which are three entities, but eternal). Now there arises a doubt as to whether Sound is a Substance, a Quality or an Action. This doubt is reasoned (by the process of elimination) in the following manner :
*Sound cannot be a Substance (द्रव्यम्), because it pervades in a single substance (Akasha). No other dravya is pervasive only in one dravya. All Substances are either not inherent in any dravya (e.g. Atman) or inherent in more than one dravya (e.g. a jar).
*Sound is not an Action (कर्म), because it is the originator of another sound, thus it gives rise to something that is of its own kind which is never the case with any action.
*Sound is thus a Quality (गुणः) arrived at by the process of elimination of the other two. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
=====Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्)=====
<blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं व्रज्यापूर्वकम् अन्यत्र दृष्टस्य अन्यत्र दर्शनमिति तथा चाऽऽदित्यस्य । तस्मात् अस्ति अप्रत्यक्षा अपि आप्यादित्यस्य व्रज्येति। (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana (is that in which the inference is based on a general observation) e.g. we have observed in all cases that we see a thing in a place different from where we saw it before only when it has moved; from such general observation we infer that the sun must be moving, even though we cannot perceive it. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं नाम, यत्राप्रत्यक्षे लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः सम्बन्धे केनचिदर्थेन लिङ्गस्य सामान्यादप्रत्यक्षो लिङ्गी गम्यते । यथेच्छादिभिरात्मा । इच्छादयो गुणाः । गुणाश्च द्रव्यसंस्थानाः । तद्यदेषां स्थानं स आत्मेति । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana is that in which, the relation between the Linga and Lingi being Apratyaksha (imperceptible), the imperceptible Lingi is inferred from the similarity of the Linga (mark) to something else. e.g. When the Atma is inferred from Desire etc. Desire etc are a Qualities and Qualities always pervade in substances. Similarity of Desire to other qualities which pervade in substances leads to the Anumana that, that Substance in which Desire pervades is the Atma. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
==Upamana Pramana==
The third instrument of knowledge is called Upamana Pramana or Analogy. The knowledge of similarity is generated by Upamana. This knowledge arises by the use of comparison of two things and the presence of some common factors in a thing.

==== Etymology ====
It is derived from the words Upa (उप) used in the meaning सादृस्य । saadrisya or similarity and मान । maana in the sense of measuring or cognition.

However, the word Upamana has been translated variously as comparison, analogy, identification, knowledge by similarity and knowledge by assimilation.

==== Gautama Nyaya Sutra 6 ====
Gautama defines Upamana as below<blockquote>प्रसिद्धसाधर्म्यात्साध्यसाधनं उपमानम् ।। ६ ।। {उपमानलक्षणम्}<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Upamana (Analogy ) is that which accomplishes its purpose through similarity to a known object.

==== Vatsyayana Bhasyam ====
The bhashyam on Nyaya sutra 6 is as follows<blockquote>प्रज्ञातेन सामान्यात्प्रज्ञापनीयस्य प्रज्ञापनमुपमानमिति । यथा गौरेवं गवय इति । यदा खल्वयं गवा समानधर्मं प्रतिपद्यते तदा प्रत्यक्षतस्तमर्थं प्रतिपद्यत इति । समाख्यासम्बन्धप्रतिपत्तिः रूपमानार्थ इत्याह । यथा गौरेवं गवय इत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते गवा समानधर्ममर्थमिन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षादुपलभमानो अस्य गवयशब्दः संज्ञेति संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं प्रतिपद्यतइति । यथा मुद्गस्तथा मुद्गपर्णि यथा माषस्तथा माषपणि इत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते उपमानात् संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं प्रतिपद्यमानस्तामोषधीं भैषज्यायाहरति । एवमन्यो अप्युपमानस्य लोके विषयो बुभुत्सितव्य इति । (Page 69 and 70 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : Analogy is that which makes known what is to be made known, through similarity to an object that is already well known ; e.g. the assertion 'as the cow so do the gavaya' i.e., animal called gavaya is like the cow.

A person, who has perceived a cow in a town goes to a forest, and perceives a wild cow. He has an apprehension "this animal is similar to a cow" owing to the meeting of his eyes with the animal.. This knowledge of similarity of a cow with a wild cow is acquired by comparison.
==Shabda Pramana==
The fourth instrument of knowledge is called as Shabda or Word. This knowledge depends on reliable authority and also on yogyata aakaksha, and aasatti of a sentence. Different sounds such as those arising from musical instruments and bamboos also contribute to the realization of this knowledge. Shabda literally means verbal knowledge, that evidence about objects realized by the power of words and sentences is called Shabhda pramana.

==== Etymology ====
According to Panini's dhatupata, the word शब्दः is derived from the dhatu श॑ब्दँ॑ used in the meaning of भाषणे शब्दक्रियायाम् उपसर्गादाविष्कारे च (speaking, in sound utterances, and revealing the meanings of upasargas)<ref>Panini's Ashtadhyayi ([http://www.ashtadhyayi.com/dhatu/10.0239?form= Verb forms for Shabda])</ref>

==== Gautama Nyaya Sutras 7 and 8 ====
<blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः।।७।।{शब्दलक्षणम्}</blockquote><blockquote>सः द्विविधः दृष्टादृष्टार्थत्वात्।।८।।{शब्दभेदः} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.7 and 8) <ref name=":4" /></blockquote>The communication made by a reliable person is Shabda (word). The said word is of two kinds - Drsthartha, where the thing spoken of is perceived (drstha) here and the Adrsthartha, where the thing spoken of is not perceived (adrshta). (Page 49 and 50 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== Vatsyayana Bhashyam ====
<blockquote>अाप्तः खलु साक्षात्कृतधर्मा यथादृष्टस्यार्थस्य चिख्यापयिषया प्रयुक्त उपदेष्टा । साक्षात्करणमर्थस्य आप्तिः, तया प्रवर्त्तत इत्याप्तः । ऋष्यार्य्यम्लेच्छानां समानं लक्षणम् । (Page 70 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : That person is called 'Apta', 'reliable' who possesses the direct (साक्षात्) and right knowledge of things. He is moved by a desire to express the thing exactly according to his knowledge and is fully capable of speaking it. Apta can be rshis, aryas and mlecchas. (Page 50 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>यस्यामुत्र प्रतीयते, सोऽदृष्टार्थः । एवमृषि लौकिकवाक्यानां विभाग इति । (Page 71 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Where the thing spoken of is only believed to exist elsewhere is Adrstha and cannot be perceived here. This way the words and sentences given by rshis and ordinary men are differentiated. (Page 50 and 51 of Reference <ref name=":6" />).

==== Yoga darshana ====
Shabda pramana is also called as Agama pramana, sastra pramana according to the Yoga darshana. <blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि ॥ १.७ ॥<ref name=":0">Yoga Darshana with Vyasa Bhasya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_-_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Pada 1])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : Pratyaksha Anumana and Agama are the three pramanas.

"Agama," literally means "that which has come", contextually it means that evidence which is realized by the process of understanding scriptures from rshis who constitute reliable authority.

In general according to our tradition Agama pramanas are divided in two parts -
* Apaurusheya : Vedas.
* Paurusheya : Puranas, dharma sastras, and smritis along with other words of rishis and elders. Basically paurusheya pramanas ultimately do not and should not contradict the Vedas.

Shabda pramana is designated in various ways by the different schools of Indian Darshanas. Thus, it is "shabda", according to Naiyayikas and Mimamsakas, "Shastra" according to Vedantins, "Aptavachana" according to Samkhya and "Aagama" to Yoga darshana.<blockquote>तया च सर्वेषां व्यवहाराः प्रवर्तन्त इति । एवमेभिः प्रमाणैर्देवमनुष्यतिरश्च व्यवहाराः प्रकल्पन्ते नातोऽन्यथेति ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Thus concludes the bhasya of the 4 pramanas given by Nyaya sutras.
==Arthaapatti Pramana==
Arthapatti is the presumption of something for the explanation of a known fact. The word arthaapatti goes under various translations as presumption, postulation, supposition, implication, and assumption. Only the Mimamsakas (Prabhakara school) and Vedantins (Advaita) accept this pramana. Nyaya does not accept Arthapatti as given in sutra

अर्थापत्तिः अप्रमाणं अनैकान्तिकत्वात् ।।३।।{अर्थापत्तिप्रामाण्यपरीक्षा}<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2 Ahnika 2])</ref>

==== Prabhakara Mimamsa ====
Prakarana Panchika, a commentary on the siddhantas of Prabhakara Guru school of Mimamsa defines Arthaapatti as follows <blockquote>अर्थापत्तिलक्षणम्। "विना कल्पनयाऽर्थेन दृष्टेनाऽनुपपन्नताम्। नयताऽदृष्टमर्थं या साऽर्थापत्तिस्तु कल्पना"।। 1 ।। इति।<ref>Prakarana Panchika by Shalikanatha Mishra (Prabhakara Guru's School) [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE#%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9B%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:%E0%A5%A4 Arthapatti Parichedha]</ref></blockquote>When a given or perceived fact cannot be explained without some other fact we have to presuppose or postulate the existence of this other fact even though we do not perceive it. What is presumed is said to be a distinct source of knowledge. Thus it a process of explaining an otherwise inexplicable phenomenon by the explanation of the fact itself is called Arthapatti.

==== Advaita Vedanta ====
Shankara Bhashya for Brahma sutra : 3.2.37<ref>Brahma Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83#%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 3 Pada 2])</ref>

'''फलमत उपपत्तेः । ( ब्रसू-३,२.३७ । )'''

Vedantaparibhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra
==Anupalabdhi or Abhava Pramana==
अभाव is accepted by Naiyāyikas as a separate पदार्थ and not as a pramana.<ref name=":1">Paper Presentation by Prof. K. Subrahmanayam titled ''[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/bvparishat/xY1Y-wdPeSo/CKzUaFPABwAJ Pramāṇas in Indian Philosophy]''</ref> According to Kumarila Bhatta Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta Anupalabdhi is an independent pramana.<ref name=":32" />

In निरालम्बनवाद (श्लो० १०७-११३) of श्लोकवार्त्तिक Kumārila clearly states that अलातचक्र etc. is बौद्धार्थ –<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>स्वप्नादिप्रत्यये बाह्यं सर्वथा न हि नेष्यते ॥ १०७ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>सर्वत्रालम्बनं बाह्यं देशकालान्यथात्मकम् । जन्मन्येकत्र भिन्ने वा तथा कालान्तरेऽपि वा ॥ १०८ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>तद्देशो वान्यदेशो वा स्वप्नज्ञानस्य गोचरः । अलातचक्रेऽलातं स्याच्छीघ्रभ्रमणसंस्कृतम् ॥ १०९ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>गन्धर्वनगरेऽभ्राणि पूर्वदृष्टं गृहादि च । पूर्वानुभूततोयं च रश्मितप्तोषरं तथा ॥ ११० ॥</blockquote><blockquote>मृगतोयस्य विज्ञाने कारणत्वेन कल्प्यते । द्रव्यान्तरे विषाणं च शशस्यत्मा च कारणम् ॥ १११ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>शशशृङ्गधियो मौण्ड्यं निषेधे शिरसोऽस्य च । वस्त्वन्तरैरसंसृष्टः पदार्थः शून्यताधियः ॥ ११२ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>कारणत्वं पदार्थानामसद्वाक्यार्थकल्पने । अत्यन्ताननुभूतोऽपि बुद्ध्या योऽर्थः प्रकल्प्यते ॥ ११३ ॥</blockquote>Patañjali says सतो बुद्धिविषयान् प्रकाशयन्ति (they express things that are there in the mind) which clearly supports ‘बौद्धार्थ’. ‘बुद्धौ कृत्वा सर्वाश्चेष्टाः कर्ता धीरस्तन्वन्नीतिः’ (the scholar, who has got an intellect that spreads, would imagine all the process, i.e. related to prior and latter, the relation etc. in the intellect) etc. is the statement of Patañjali which also establishes the सिद्धान्त of बौद्धार्थ. Words like शशशृङ्गम्, गगनकुसुमम् etc. express things that are बौद्ध (imaginary) rather than real.

Patañjali advocates a third category, i.e., other than प्रमा and भ्रम, called विकल्प. प्रमा is यथार्थज्ञान (authoritative cognition) achieved through ''Pramāṇas'' whereas भ्रम or विपर्यय is the usage (and the connected cognition) that is borne from the usage and the cognition that follows but without the existence of the thing in question – शब्दज्ञानानुपाती वस्तुशून्यो विकल्पः (यौ० सू० १-९) is the ''sūtra'' of Patañjali. शशशृङ्गम् etc. are examples. Such a cognition is possible when there is बौद्धार्थ. There is no बाह्यार्थ (outside / real thing) but due to the capacity of ''Śabda'' the cognition is generated. The same is expressed by Kumārila in श्लोकवार्त्तिकम् (चोदनासूत्रम् – ६)

अत्यन्तासत्यपि ज्ञानमर्थे शब्दः करोति हि। (even if the real thing is absolutely absent ''Śabda'' generates the cognition). Hence अत्यन्तासत् means अत्यन्ताभाव।

The concept of Abhava (negative existence) has been discussed in two forms, namely, actual presence or absence of a thing (reality) and knowledge of the same. Reality of existence is expressed by words such as asat, alika, nirupakhya etc, while the way of knowing it is expressed as Anupalabdhi. Simply put, negation is that there is some reality known as Abhava and the means to ascertain it is known as Anupalabdhi. Even though Kanada explains the concept of Abhava in his Vaiseshika sutras, the means of knowing it as as a pramana (Anupalabdhi) has been put forth by the Bhattas and their close followers the Vedantins.

In general understanding it is also the knowledge by which we immediately cognize the non-existence of an object, e.g. absence of rainfall indicates that the connection of cloud and the wind has not happened. <ref name=":42">M. Chandraiah. (2002) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/71380 Anupalabdhi as a Pramana. A Critical Study.]'' Tirupati : Venkateswara University</ref>
== Pramanas in Astika Darshanas ==
While what the shad pramanas are have been discussed here, [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)]] discusses which darshana accepts which pramanas as means for valid cognition along with the number of pramanas that they consider in their siddhanta.

== References ==
[[Category:Darshanas]]

Shabda Bodha (शाब्दबोधः)

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Shabda Bodha (शाब्दबोधः)

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Shabda Bodha (शाब्दबोधः)

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Shabdabodha (Samskrit : ) refers to the awareness generated by shabda

Bharthari says:<ref>Dr. N. S. Ramanuja Tatacharya. (2005) ''[https://archive.org/details/ShabdaBodhamimansaAnInquiryIntoIndianTheoriesOfVerbalCognitionN.S.RamanujaTatacharya/page/n39 Shabdabodhamimamsa. An Inquiry into Indian Theories of Verbal Cognition. Volume 1: The Sentence and its Significance.]'' New Delhi : Rastriya Sanskrit Samsthan</ref>

"It is words that form the bases of meanings, purposes, activities and truth". (Vākyapadiya, Brahmakānda 13)

But intelligent insightful people do not wish to know or communicate to others over and over again things that they already know well. If they did so, their statements would not be worth heeding. They would not be respectable as ordinary or as reflective rational beings. Indeed, they would be dismissed as crazy.

Thus everybody admits that it is only fresh information - information of things hitherto unknown (to the listeners) that figures as sentence-meanings in order to convey which communicators utter words which make up intelligible sentences.

''The awareness generated by such sabda — in the form of a sentence is called "sabdabodha", cognition of sentencemeaning or awareness of the relation (of word-meanings).''

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

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Tantrayukti (Samskrit : तन्त्रयुक्तिः) means the methodology of composing shastra works. The ancient Indians were widely and rightly known for their assiduous pursuit of knowledge (ज्ञानम्) which is considered to be the most sacred thing in the world. They laid down the rules in construction of a shastra, approaching it in an orderly manner, defining all aspects (lakshanas) of a given subject, referring previous literature about a particular topic, presenting new thoughts and theories thereby establishing a comprehensive methodology of composing and interpreting the shastras. Such methods are seen in the modern day scientific compositions and treatises.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan </ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than a dozen books provide us the information detailing how a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra is composed. Every shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using the principles of methodology of those shastra compositions, of which the teachers and students, the critics who expounded theoretical works on subjects, were required to be familiar with.

All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. The ancient methodology for composing scientific theories have 95 constituents, as given by various scholars, which can be classified under the following heads<ref name=":0" />
* तन्त्रयुक्तयः (''tantrayuktayaḥ)'' ॥ 36 Tantrayuktis
* व्याख्यानि (''vyākhyāni)'' ॥ 15 Vyakhyas
* कल्पनाः (''kalpanāḥ)'' ॥ 7 Kalpanas
* आश्रयानि (''āśrayāni)''॥ 20 Ashrayas
* ताच्छील्यानि (''tācchīlyāni)''॥17 Taatchilyas
A brief introduction of the above [[Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)|shastra rachana paddhatis]] contain various elements of writing and presentation of shastras, and of them the most important, Tantrayukti will be undertaken in this topic. It may be noted that many modern day scholars including those in the West have studied about Tantrayukti in different perspectives.

== Etymology ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः), an uncommon word, yet practically applied by all Bharatiya shastrakaras, includes a set of research tools for the composition of shastras. तन्त्रयुक्तिः is comprised of two words तन्त्र (tantra) and युक्तिः (yukti).

=== तन्त्रम् || Tantra ===
The word tantra is derived from the samskrit root or dhatu तनु विस्तारे in the meanings of 'to stretch', to expand, to diffuse, spread. It is also defined as सिद्धान्तः (siddhanta), ओषधिः (Oshadhi), श्रुतिशाखाविशेषः, हेतुः, उभ-यार्थप्रयोजकम् इतिकर्त्तव्यता इति मेदिनी as per Medini kosha.

It is also expressed in the meaning of 'to compose', 'to write' as per The Student's Sanskrit English Dictionary by V. S. Apte. The traditional definition of the word tantra given in Sarvatantra siddhanta padarthalakshana sangraha by Bhikshu Gaurishankara<ref name=":0" />is as follows<blockquote>तनोति विपुलानर्थान् तत्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान् | त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात् तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ||</blockquote><blockquote>''Thus tantra is that which holds the diffused elements or the expanse of a subject; it is one in which are interwoven different thoughts and theories concerning a scientific subject.''<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''Tantra can be termed as that which discusses and details subjects and concepts and also that which protects.''<ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref></blockquote>Charaka samhita gives the list of synonyms of the word tantra as तत्रायुर्वेदः शाखा विद्या सूत्रं ज्ञानं शास्त्रं लक्षणं तन्त्रमिति... Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of veda, vidya (education), sutra (aphorism), jnana (knowledge), shastra, lakshana (definition).<ref name=":2" />

Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory, subject) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Many scholars and poets including Mahakavi Kalidasa have used the word tantra to mean 'a scientific work' as mentioned by Prof. W. K. Lele. <ref name=":0" />

=== युक्तिः || Yukti ===
Yukti (युक्तिः) is a derivative of the the dhatu युज् in the meaning 'to unite', 'join','to employ' etc. The word ''yukti'' is an application, an arrangement, a usage, a means, a device etc.<ref name=":0" /> Sharma has offered an explanation of yukti (युक्तिः) as follows <blockquote>युज्यन्ते सङ्क्ल्प्यन्ते सम्बध्यन्ते परस्परमर्थाः सम्यक्तया प्राकरणिकेऽभिमतेऽर्थे विरोधव्याघातादिदोषमपास्यानया इति युक्तिः | युज् योजने तस्मिन् यक्तिरिति रूपं भवति | </blockquote>Meaning : Yukti is one that removes the imperfections like impropriety, contradiction from the intended meaning and thoroughly unites the meanings (in writings or compositions).Yuj is used to mean 'to arrange'.

=== Meaning ===
तन्त्रस्य युक्तयस्तन्त्रयुक्तयः |

A yukti thus means an inevitable tool, a scientific one, an indispensable device employed in composing a scientific treatise.<ref name=":0" /> Tantrayukti, is therefore, a device of the tantra (shastra). Dr. Jayaraman mentions the various terms in which scholars, both Indian and Western have rendered tantrayukti as follows<ref name=":2" />
# ''Methodology in Sanskrit texts on Science - K. V. Sharma''
# ''Forms of scientific argument - S. C. Vidyabhushana''
# ''Plan of a treatise - Shamasastry''
# ''Method of treatment, maxims for the interpretation of textual topics - Esther Solomon''
# ''Formal elements which gave form to a scientific work - Gerhard Obberhammer''
# ''Methodology of theoretico-scientific treatises in Sanskrit - Dr. W. K. Lele''
# ''Methodology and technique, which enable one to compose and interpret scientific treatises correctly and intelligently - N. E. Muthuswamy''
# ''An expedient in the writing of science - Surendranath Mittal''
Works such as Charaka Samhita, Sushrutasamhita, Ashtangahrdaya and Arthashastra employed tantrayuktis as devices either for diagnostic purposes or for explanation of technical aspects to understand the texts respectively.<ref name=":32">''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref> Thus we see above from the etymological and conventional usages that Tantra denotes a systematic work of literature (on any subject) and yukti is an aid in the composition of such a work to convey the intended concepts with clarity.

== तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥ Tantrayukti ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः) refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. A treatise is comprised of a large number of paragraphs, chapters, sections, sub-sections, explanations, concepts etc as such a scientific writer is required to use a large number of ways to put forth his concept. Tantrayuktis, are many in number and aid the author to present his concept in a lucid and systematic manner.

=== Number of Tantrayuktis ===
Based on each shastrakara, we see that there are about 36 generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref> Below is the list of four important sources of these yuktis.
{| class="wikitable"
!S.No.
!कौटल्य
!चरक
!सुश्रुत
!विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण
|-
|1
|<nowiki>अधिकरणम्</nowiki>
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|-
|2
|<nowiki>विधानम्</nowiki>
|योगः
|योगः
|योगः
|-
|3
|<nowiki>योगः</nowiki>
|हेत्वर्थः
|पदार्थः
|पदार्थः
|-
|4
|<nowiki>पदार्थः</nowiki>
|पदार्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|-
|5
|<nowiki>हेत्वर्थः</nowiki>
|प्रदेशः
|उद्धेशः
|उद्धेशः
|-
|6
|<nowiki>उद्धेशः</nowiki>
|उद्धेशः
|निर्देशः
|निर्देशः
|-
|7
|<nowiki>निर्देशः </nowiki>
|निर्देशः
|उपदेशः
|उपदेशः
|-
|8
|<nowiki>उपदेशः</nowiki>
|वाक्यशेषः
|अपदेशः
|अपदेशः
|-
|9
|<nowiki>अपदेशः</nowiki>
|प्रयोजनम्
|प्रदेशः
|प्रदेशः
|-
|10
|<nowiki>अतिदेशः</nowiki>
|उपदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|-
|11
|<nowiki>प्रदेशः</nowiki>
|अपदेशः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गः
|-
|12
|<nowiki>उपमानम्</nowiki>
|अतिदेशः
|वाक्यशेषः
|वाक्यशेषः
|-
|13
|<nowiki>अर्थापत्तिः</nowiki>
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|-
|14
|<nowiki>संशयः</nowiki>
|निर्णयः
|विपर्ययः
|प्रसङ्गः
|-
|15
|<nowiki>प्रसङ्गः</nowiki>
|प्रसङ्गः
|प्रसङ्गः
|एकान्तः
|-
|16
|<nowiki>विपर्ययः</nowiki>
|ऐकान्तः
|एकान्तः
|अनैकान्तः
|-
|17
|<nowiki>वाक्यशेषः</nowiki>
|नैकान्तः
|अनेकान्तः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|-
|18
|<nowiki>अनुमतम्</nowiki>
|अपवर्गः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|-
|19
|<nowiki>व्याख्यानम्</nowiki>
|विपर्ययः
|निर्णयः
|विधानम्
|-
|20
|<nowiki>निर्वचनम्</nowiki>
|पूर्वपक्षः
|अनुमतम्
|विपर्ययः
|-
|21
|<nowiki>निदर्शनम्</nowiki>
|विधानम्
|विधानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|-
|22
|<nowiki>अपवर्गः</nowiki>
|अनुमतम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|-
|23
|<nowiki>स्वसंज्ञा</nowiki>
|व्याख्यानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|संशयः
|-
|24
|<nowiki>पूर्वपक्षः</nowiki>
|संशयः
|संशयः
|अतिव्याख्यानम्
|-
|25
|<nowiki>उत्तरपक्षः</nowiki>
|अतीतावेक्षा
|व्याख्यानम्
|अनुमतम्
|-
|26
|<nowiki>एकान्तः</nowiki>
|अनागतावेक्षा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|-
|27
|<nowiki>अनागतावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|स्वसंज्ञा
|निर्वचनम्
|निर्वचनम्
|-
|28
|<nowiki>अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|ऊह्यम्
|निदर्शनम्
|दृष्टान्तः
|-
|29
|<nowiki>नियोगः</nowiki>
|समुच्चयः
|नियोगः
|नियोगः
|-
|30
|<nowiki>विकल्पः</nowiki>
|निदर्शनम्
|विकल्पः
|विकल्पः
|-
|31
|<nowiki>समुच्चयः</nowiki>
|निर्वचनम्
|समुच्चयः
|समुच्चयः
|-
|32
|<nowiki>ऊह्यम्</nowiki>
|संनियोगः
|ऊह्यम्
|ऊह्यम्
|-
|33
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|विकल्पनम्
| -
| -
|-
|34
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|प्रत्युत्सारः
| -
| -
|-
|35
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|उद्धारः
| -
| -
|-
|36
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|सम्भवः
| -
| -
|}

=== Tantrayukti in Literature ===
All Bharatiya shastras, have been composed based on the tantrayukti system. One can see the application of Tantrayuktis in the composition of scientific literature such as Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana, Arthashastra, Ayurveda, Alankarashastra and Kamashastra. Such a study of methodological application is relevant to modern day studies, experiments and sciences. Here a few applications of tantrayuktis in ancient shastras is described.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" />
# Charaka Samhita (Ayurveda) is the first recorded evidence where Tantrayukti is dealt with. A seminal work on Ayurveda, it comprises of eight Sthanas containing 9295 sutras, of which the eighth sthana called as siddhisthana, has enumerated about 36 tantrayuktis as given in the table given above.
# Sushruta Samhita (Surgical Medicine), a renowned text on Sastrachikitsa (Surgery) composed by Sushruta, has about six sthanas with 8300 sutras in total. Thirtytwo tantrayuktis are detailed in the sixtyfifth adhyaya by Sushruta.
# Ashtangasangraha (Ayurveda) written by Vagbhata (a second text called Ashtangahrdaya) mentions 36 tantrayuktis in the 50th adhyaya if the Uttarasthana. Ashtangahrdaya also mentions Tantrayuktis.
# Vishnudarmottara Purana, enumerates 32 tantrayuktis in the sixth adhyaya of the third kanda.
# Kautilya's Arthashastra (Governance), an oldest available Tantrayukti-s list of 32 devices is from Arthashastra. Kautilya's Arthashastra, an ancient authoritative work on governance, diplomacy, economy, politics and statecraft, defines and illustrates Tantrayuktis in the fifteenth अधिकरणम् (Adhikarana).
# Tantrayuktivichara by Nilamegha (Ayurveda Practitioner from Kerala), a later day text considers 36 tantrayuktis in detail, based on Vagbhata's exposition.
# Nyayasutra bhashyam, by Vatsayana, also mentions about a tantrayukti called Anumata, while discussing the fourth sutra of the first ahnika in the first chapter of Gautama's Nyayasutras.<ref name=":2" />

=== Role of Tantrayuktis ===
Charaka aptly summarizes the role of tantrayuktis as follows<blockquote>यथाऽम्बुजवनस्यार्कः प्रदीपो वेश्मनो यथा ॥ 46</blockquote><blockquote>प्रबोध (न) प्रकाशार्थास्तथा तन्त्रस्य युक्तयः । एकस्मिन्नपि यस्येह शास्त्रे लब्दास्पदा मतिः॥ 47</blockquote><blockquote>स शास्त्रमन्यदप्याशु युक्तिज्ञत्वात् प्रबुध्यते । </blockquote>Meaning : Just as the sun causes a bed of lotuses to blossom, just a a lamp lights up a house, so also the tantrayuktis shed light on the meanings of the scientific subjects. He who gains a thorough knowledge of a shastra along with these tantrayuktis can quickly gain knowledge of another discipline too because of युक्तिज्ञत्वम् । knowledge of yuktis.

Chakrapanidatta further refines Charaka's views by adding that along with bringing out the full exposition of the scientific topic, tantrayuktis also throw light on the hidden meaning of the content. By learning these, a medical practitioner not only saves himself from injudicious handling but also saves the life of the patient.

Sushruta, clearly states that the purpose of tantrayuktis is two-fold namely, the arrangement of the sentences and the organization of the meanings.<ref name=":0" />

== Tantrayukti Salient Features ==
Almost all aspects required for writing a systematic and compact treatise are discussed by yuktis. A few illustrations presented by Dr. Jayaraman, in his paper<ref name=":2" /> are given here.

=== Basic Structure of a Treatise ===
Tantrayuktis such as the following aid the author to format a template, into which the content or the subject matter of choice could be constructed. It forms the foundation on which all aspects of the treatise will stand.
* प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana - defines the main objective, object or aim of the treatise
* अधिकरणम् ॥ Adhikarana - gives the topic or topics
* विधानम् ॥ Vidhana - defines the arrangement of the topics
* उद्देशः ॥ Uddesha, निर्देशः ॥ Nirdesha - general pattern of enumeration
For example, Vidhanam, a yukti is used in Arthashastra. It is defined by Kautilya as शास्त्रस्य प्रकरणानुपूर्वी विधानम् to mean 'Treatment of topics in their inherent order'.<ref name=":0" /> Kautilya applies this yukti in his own text, Arthashastra, where प्रकरणाधिकरणसमुद्देशः lists the sections of the work. The subtopics start with विद्यासमुद्देशः (Chapter about Knowledge) वृद्धसंयोगः (Chapter about company of learned elders), इन्द्रियजयः (Chapter about conquering senses), अमात्योत्पत्तिः (Chapter about recruiting ministers) are placed in their natural sequence.

Panini's Ashtadhyayi is another exemplary illustration of this yukti, for it is the masterpiece of most orderly writing. Ancient poeticians (Bhamaha, Vamana, Dandi, Rajashekhara, Hemachandra to name a few) have used this yukti expertly in their works.

In the modern days, this yukti is similar to the outline or table of contents, an arrangement which facilitates the conception of all major and minor topics of a scientific work, their interpretation and enumeration.

=== Stating Theories and Rules ===
Any treatise, literary or scientific, would lay down some specific principles, theories and rules on the basis of research and observation. Some tantrayuktis help codify the observations on which rules are framed. A few are<ref name=":2" />
* नियोगः ॥ Niyoga - an invariable rule
* अपवर्गः ॥ Apavarga - an Exception to the general rule
* विकल्पः ॥ Vikalpa - an optional rule
* उपदेशः ॥ Upadesa - directives, advice (of do's and dont's)
* स्वसंज्ञा ॥ Svasamjna - a technical term
Sushruta gives an example of Apavarga in the context of prescribing medication for poisonous bites. अस्वेद्या विषोपसृष्टा अन्यत्र कीटविषादिति । The rule is - Fomentation should not be applied in the case of poisoning, except those suffering from insect poisoning.

=== Explanation of Concepts ===
A mere statement of rules, concepts, principles, observations may be unconnected and abstract. Yuktis provided the author to explain his concept or theory clearly with examples, analogies, comparisons and illustrations.<ref name=":2" />
* निर्वचनम् ॥ Nirvachana - outlines the etymology of terms
* पूर्वपक्षः ॥ Purvapaksha - preliminary objections (a provisional view)
* अनुमतम् ॥ Anumata - accepting the view of others
* उत्तरपक्षः ॥ Uttarapaksha - final answers (decisions)
* दृष्टान्तः ॥ Drshanta - Use of analogy, illustration to aid in explanation of the concept

=== Style of Expression and Diction ===
A treatise loses its focus when the language is verbose distracting the reader away from the intent of the author. A crisp, unambiguous presentation is essential for any scientific work or even while presenting an abstract concept. An author familiar with the following Tantrayuktis will be well guided to present an orderly and crisp work.
* वाक्यशेषः ॥ Sentence completion
* अर्थापत्तिः ॥ Implication
* समुच्चयः ॥ Collection
* अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् ॥ reference to a past statement
* अनागतावेक्षणम् ॥ reference to a future statement
Thus in the above four instances we see the apt usage of tantrayuktis, as efficient tools in the creation of treatises and scientific texts.

== Tantrayuktis with Illustrations ==
In this section we present the list of tantrayuktis with at least one definition (though each yukti has other meanings given by different scholars), their explanation in english with an illustration of the concept.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Finalized List of Tantrayuktis
!S. No
!Tantrayukti
!Synonyms
!One Definition
!Nomenclature & Explanation
!Illustration
|-
|1
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|अतीतावेक्षा
|यत्पूर्वमुक्तं तदतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् । (Sushruta Samhita)
|Restrospection, to say that it has been previously stated
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: प्रतीयमानो ह्यर्थभेदः प्राक् प्रदर्शितः। The differences of Pratiyamana artha have been previously shown.
|-
|2
|अतिदेशः
|NA
|अन्यसम्बन्धिनां धर्माणामन्यत्रव्यवस्थापनमतिदेशः। (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Extended Application, connecting or extending the properties of one to another interrelated topic.
|
|-
|3
|अधिकरणम्
|NA
|अधिकरणं नाम यमर्थमधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते कर्ता । (Charaka Samhita)
|Subject or topic of discussion, subject matter of the scientific work, a topic of the chapter, section, sentence etc.
|Vamana's work is titled 'काव्यालङ्कारसूत्राणि', it at once suggests that काव्यालङ्कार or The Beauty of Poetry' which is the adhikarana of Vamana's whole work.
|-
|4
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षा, अनागतापेक्षा
|अनागतं भविष्यद्यत्तस्यावेक्षा यथोच्यते । (Tantrayukti)
|Consideration of or Reference to a future statement, enables writer to shorten the discussion of a current topic and to expand it later.
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: द्वितीयोऽपि प्रभेदो वाच्याद्विभिन्नः सप्रपञ्चमग्रे दर्शयिष्यते । Anandavardhana tells his readers in the above statement that he would discuss the अलङ्कारध्वनिः at a future point.
|-
|5
|अनुमतम्
|NA
|परपक्षस्य भिन्नस्याप्यङ्गीकरणमनुमतम् ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Assent, Agreement, acceptance of the views of others.
|Bhamaha's Kavayalankara mentions this yukti in many instances: स्वभावोक्तिरलकार इति केचित्प्रचक्षते । Bhamaha quotes that a few accept Svabhavokti as an Alamkara.
|-
|6
|अपदेशः
|NA
|अपदेशो नाम यत्प्रतिज्ञार्थसाधनाय हेतुवचनम् । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Statement of reason or a cause of something. To quote another author's opinion on a given topic and to express one's own views. Explains the cause/s of an effect.
|Vagbhata mentions: काव्यं ग्राह्यमलङ्कारात् । Kavya should be understood from Alankaras.
|-
|7
|अपवर्गः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गो नाम सामान्योक्त्यनुप्रविष्टस्य विशेषेणाकर्षणं सोपवर्गः ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|An exception to the general rule, a special rule.
|Vamana's Kavyalamkarasutrani mentions this yukti very clearly : पुराणार्थमनर्थकम् । This is a general rule. न वाक्यालङ्कारार्थम् । This is an exception to the above rule.
|-
|8
|अर्थापत्तिः
|NA
|अर्थापत्तिर्नाम यदेकस्मिन्नर्थे उच्यमाने अनुक्तस्याप्यर्थस्य बलादागमनं सार्थापत्तिः । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Implication, Suggested meaning (अापत्तिः does not mean calamity, it means 'obtaining', 'procuring'). Implied meaning is conveyed by the force of the meaning of the words used.
|Vamana mentions that समग्रगुणोपेता वैदर्भी । Vaidarbhi (वैदर्भी) style is full of all poetic attributes (or excellences). Here he implies that the said style is completely flawless and full of good qualities.
|-
|9
|पूर्वपक्षः
|NA
|
|
|
|-
|10
|उत्तरपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|तस्य निर्णयवाक्यमुत्तरपक्षः। (Arthashastra)
|Refutation,
|
|}

== References ==

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-16T17:40:52Z

Sumit: /* Tantrayukti Illustrations */

Tantrayukti (Samskrit : तन्त्रयुक्तिः) means the methodology of composing shastra works. The ancient Indians were widely and rightly known for their assiduous pursuit of knowledge (ज्ञानम्) which is considered to be the most sacred thing in the world. They laid down the rules in construction of a shastra, approaching it in an orderly manner, defining all aspects (lakshanas) of a given subject, referring previous literature about a particular topic, presenting new thoughts and theories thereby establishing a comprehensive methodology of composing and interpreting the shastras. Such methods are seen in the modern day scientific compositions and treatises.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan </ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than a dozen books provide us the information detailing how a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra is composed. Every shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using the principles of methodology of those shastra compositions, of which the teachers and students, the critics who expounded theoretical works on subjects, were required to be familiar with.

All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. The ancient methodology for composing scientific theories have 95 constituents, as given by various scholars, which can be classified under the following heads<ref name=":0" />
* तन्त्रयुक्तयः (''tantrayuktayaḥ)'' ॥ 36 Tantrayuktis
* व्याख्यानि (''vyākhyāni)'' ॥ 15 Vyakhyas
* कल्पनाः (''kalpanāḥ)'' ॥ 7 Kalpanas
* आश्रयानि (''āśrayāni)''॥ 20 Ashrayas
* ताच्छील्यानि (''tācchīlyāni)''॥17 Taatchilyas
A brief introduction of the above [[Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)|shastra rachana paddhatis]] contain various elements of writing and presentation of shastras, and of them the most important, Tantrayukti will be undertaken in this topic. It may be noted that many modern day scholars including those in the West have studied about Tantrayukti in different perspectives.

== Etymology ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः), an uncommon word, yet practically applied by all Bharatiya shastrakaras, includes a set of research tools for the composition of shastras. तन्त्रयुक्तिः is comprised of two words तन्त्र (tantra) and युक्तिः (yukti).

=== तन्त्रम् || Tantra ===
The word tantra is derived from the samskrit root or dhatu तनु विस्तारे in the meanings of 'to stretch', to expand, to diffuse, spread. It is also defined as सिद्धान्तः (siddhanta), ओषधिः (Oshadhi), श्रुतिशाखाविशेषः, हेतुः, उभ-यार्थप्रयोजकम् इतिकर्त्तव्यता इति मेदिनी as per Medini kosha.

It is also expressed in the meaning of 'to compose', 'to write' as per The Student's Sanskrit English Dictionary by V. S. Apte. The traditional definition of the word tantra given in Sarvatantra siddhanta padarthalakshana sangraha by Bhikshu Gaurishankara<ref name=":0" />is as follows<blockquote>तनोति विपुलानर्थान् तत्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान् | त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात् तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ||</blockquote><blockquote>''Thus tantra is that which holds the diffused elements or the expanse of a subject; it is one in which are interwoven different thoughts and theories concerning a scientific subject.''<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''Tantra can be termed as that which discusses and details subjects and concepts and also that which protects.''<ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref></blockquote>Charaka samhita gives the list of synonyms of the word tantra as तत्रायुर्वेदः शाखा विद्या सूत्रं ज्ञानं शास्त्रं लक्षणं तन्त्रमिति... Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of veda, vidya (education), sutra (aphorism), jnana (knowledge), shastra, lakshana (definition).<ref name=":2" />

Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory, subject) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Many scholars and poets including Mahakavi Kalidasa have used the word tantra to mean 'a scientific work' as mentioned by Prof. W. K. Lele. <ref name=":0" />

=== युक्तिः || Yukti ===
Yukti (युक्तिः) is a derivative of the the dhatu युज् in the meaning 'to unite', 'join','to employ' etc. The word ''yukti'' is an application, an arrangement, a usage, a means, a device etc.<ref name=":0" /> Sharma has offered an explanation of yukti (युक्तिः) as follows <blockquote>युज्यन्ते सङ्क्ल्प्यन्ते सम्बध्यन्ते परस्परमर्थाः सम्यक्तया प्राकरणिकेऽभिमतेऽर्थे विरोधव्याघातादिदोषमपास्यानया इति युक्तिः | युज् योजने तस्मिन् यक्तिरिति रूपं भवति | </blockquote>Meaning : Yukti is one that removes the imperfections like impropriety, contradiction from the intended meaning and thoroughly unites the meanings (in writings or compositions).Yuj is used to mean 'to arrange'.

=== Meaning ===
तन्त्रस्य युक्तयस्तन्त्रयुक्तयः |

A yukti thus means an inevitable tool, a scientific one, an indispensable device employed in composing a scientific treatise.<ref name=":0" /> Tantrayukti, is therefore, a device of the tantra (shastra). Dr. Jayaraman mentions the various terms in which scholars, both Indian and Western have rendered tantrayukti as follows<ref name=":2" />
# ''Methodology in Sanskrit texts on Science - K. V. Sharma''
# ''Forms of scientific argument - S. C. Vidyabhushana''
# ''Plan of a treatise - Shamasastry''
# ''Method of treatment, maxims for the interpretation of textual topics - Esther Solomon''
# ''Formal elements which gave form to a scientific work - Gerhard Obberhammer''
# ''Methodology of theoretico-scientific treatises in Sanskrit - Dr. W. K. Lele''
# ''Methodology and technique, which enable one to compose and interpret scientific treatises correctly and intelligently - N. E. Muthuswamy''
# ''An expedient in the writing of science - Surendranath Mittal''
Works such as Charaka Samhita, Sushrutasamhita, Ashtangahrdaya and Arthashastra employed tantrayuktis as devices either for diagnostic purposes or for explanation of technical aspects to understand the texts respectively.<ref name=":32">''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref> Thus we see above from the etymological and conventional usages that Tantra denotes a systematic work of literature (on any subject) and yukti is an aid in the composition of such a work to convey the intended concepts with clarity.

== तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥ Tantrayukti ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः) refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. A treatise is comprised of a large number of paragraphs, chapters, sections, sub-sections, explanations, concepts etc as such a scientific writer is required to use a large number of ways to put forth his concept. Thus we see that there are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!S.No.
!कौटल्य
!चरक
!सुश्रुत
!विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण
|-
|1
|<nowiki>अधिकरणम्</nowiki>
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|-
|2
|<nowiki>विधानम्</nowiki>
|योगः
|योगः
|योगः
|-
|3
|<nowiki>योगः</nowiki>
|हेत्वर्थः
|पदार्थः
|पदार्थः
|-
|4
|<nowiki>पदार्थः</nowiki>
|पदार्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|-
|5
|<nowiki>हेत्वर्थः</nowiki>
|प्रदेशः
|उद्धेशः
|उद्धेशः
|-
|6
|<nowiki>उद्धेशः</nowiki>
|उद्धेशः
|निर्देशः
|निर्देशः
|-
|7
|<nowiki>निर्देशः </nowiki>
|निर्देशः
|उपदेशः
|उपदेशः
|-
|8
|<nowiki>उपदेशः</nowiki>
|वाक्यशेषः
|अपदेशः
|अपदेशः
|-
|9
|<nowiki>अपदेशः</nowiki>
|प्रयोजनम्
|प्रदेशः
|प्रदेशः
|-
|10
|<nowiki>अतिदेशः</nowiki>
|उपदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|-
|11
|<nowiki>प्रदेशः</nowiki>
|अपदेशः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गः
|-
|12
|<nowiki>उपमानम्</nowiki>
|अतिदेशः
|वाक्यशेषः
|वाक्यशेषः
|-
|13
|<nowiki>अर्थापत्तिः</nowiki>
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|-
|14
|<nowiki>संशयः</nowiki>
|निर्णयः
|विपर्ययः
|प्रसङ्गः
|-
|15
|<nowiki>प्रसङ्गः</nowiki>
|प्रसङ्गः
|प्रसङ्गः
|एकान्तः
|-
|16
|<nowiki>विपर्ययः</nowiki>
|ऐकान्तः
|एकान्तः
|अनैकान्तः
|-
|17
|<nowiki>वाक्यशेषः</nowiki>
|नैकान्तः
|अनेकान्तः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|-
|18
|<nowiki>अनुमतम्</nowiki>
|अपवर्गः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|-
|19
|<nowiki>व्याख्यानम्</nowiki>
|विपर्ययः
|निर्णयः
|विधानम्
|-
|20
|<nowiki>निर्वचनम्</nowiki>
|पूर्वपक्षः
|अनुमतम्
|विपर्ययः
|-
|21
|<nowiki>निदर्शनम्</nowiki>
|विधानम्
|विधानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|-
|22
|<nowiki>अपवर्गः</nowiki>
|अनुमतम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|-
|23
|<nowiki>स्वसंज्ञा</nowiki>
|व्याख्यानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|संशयः
|-
|24
|<nowiki>पूर्वपक्षः</nowiki>
|संशयः
|संशयः
|अतिव्याख्यानम्
|-
|25
|<nowiki>उत्तरपक्षः</nowiki>
|अतीतावेक्षा
|व्याख्यानम्
|अनुमतम्
|-
|26
|<nowiki>एकान्तः</nowiki>
|अनागतावेक्षा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|-
|27
|<nowiki>अनागतावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|स्वसंज्ञा
|निर्वचनम्
|निर्वचनम्
|-
|28
|<nowiki>अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|ऊह्यम्
|निदर्शनम्
|दृष्टान्तः
|-
|29
|<nowiki>नियोगः</nowiki>
|समुच्चयः
|नियोगः
|नियोगः
|-
|30
|<nowiki>विकल्पः</nowiki>
|निदर्शनम्
|विकल्पः
|विकल्पः
|-
|31
|<nowiki>समुच्चयः</nowiki>
|निर्वचनम्
|समुच्चयः
|समुच्चयः
|-
|32
|<nowiki>ऊह्यम्</nowiki>
|संनियोगः
|ऊह्यम्
|ऊह्यम्
|-
|33
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|विकल्पनम्
| -
| -
|-
|34
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|प्रत्युत्सारः
| -
| -
|-
|35
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|उद्धारः
| -
| -
|-
|36
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|सम्भवः
| -
| -
|}

=== Tantrayukti in Literature ===
All Bharatiya shastras, have been composed based on the tantrayukti system. One can see the application of Tantrayuktis in the composition of scientific literature such as Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana, Arthashastra, Ayurveda, Alankarashastra and Kamashastra. Such a study of methodological application is relevant to modern day studies, experiments and sciences. Here a few applications of tantrayuktis in ancient shastras is described.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" />
# Charaka Samhita (Ayurveda) is the first recorded evidence where Tantrayukti is dealt with. A seminal work on Ayurveda, it comprises of eight Sthanas containing 9295 sutras, of which the eighth sthana called as siddhisthana, has enumerated about 36 tantrayuktis as given in the table given above.
# Sushruta Samhita (Surgical Medicine), a renowned text on Sastrachikitsa (Surgery) composed by Sushruta, has about six sthanas with 8300 sutras in total. Thirtytwo tantrayuktis are detailed in the sixtyfifth adhyaya by Sushruta.
# Ashtangasangraha (Ayurveda) written by Vagbhata (a second text called Ashtangahrdaya) mentions 36 tantrayuktis in the 50th adhyaya if the Uttarasthana. Ashtangahrdaya also mentions Tantrayuktis.
# Vishnudarmottara Purana, enumerates 32 tantrayuktis in the sixth adhyaya of the third kanda.
# Kautilya's Arthashastra (Governance), an oldest available Tantrayukti-s list of 32 devices is from Arthashastra. Kautilya's Arthashastra, an ancient authoritative work on governance, diplomacy, economy, politics and statecraft, defines and illustrates Tantrayuktis in the fifteenth अधिकरणम् (Adhikarana).
# Tantrayuktivichara by Nilamegha (Ayurveda Practitioner from Kerala), a later day text considers 36 tantrayuktis in detail, based on Vagbhata's exposition.
# Nyayasutra bhashyam, by Vatsayana, also mentions about a tantrayukti called Anumata, while discussing the fourth sutra of the first ahnika in the first chapter of Gautama's Nyayasutras.<ref name=":2" />

=== Role of Tantrayuktis ===
Charaka aptly summarizes the role of tantrayuktis as follows<blockquote>यथाऽम्बुजवनस्यार्कः प्रदीपो वेश्मनो यथा ॥ 46</blockquote><blockquote>प्रबोध (न) प्रकाशार्थास्तथा तन्त्रस्य युक्तयः । एकस्मिन्नपि यस्येह शास्त्रे लब्दास्पदा मतिः॥ 47</blockquote><blockquote>स शास्त्रमन्यदप्याशु युक्तिज्ञत्वात् प्रबुध्यते । </blockquote>Meaning : Just as the sun causes a bed of lotuses to blossom, just a a lamp lights up a house, so also the tantrayuktis shed light on the meanings of the scientific subjects. He who gains a thorough knowledge of a shastra along with these tantrayuktis can quickly gain knowledge of another discipline too because of युक्तिज्ञत्वम् । knowledge of yuktis.

Chakrapanidatta further refines Charaka's views by adding that along with bringing out the full exposition of the scientific topic, tantrayuktis also throw light on the hidden meaning of the content. By learning these, a medical practitioner not only saves himself from injudicious handling but also saves the life of the patient.

Sushruta, clearly states that the purpose of tantrayuktis is two-fold namely, the arrangement of the sentences and the organization of the meanings.<ref name=":0" />

== Tantrayukti Salient Features ==
Almost all aspects required for writing a systematic and compact treatise are discussed by yuktis. A few illustrations presented by Dr. Jayaraman, in his paper<ref name=":2" /> are given here.

=== Basic Structure of a Treatise ===
Tantrayuktis such as the following aid the author to format a template, into which the content or the subject matter of choice could be constructed. It forms the foundation on which all aspects of the treatise will stand.
* प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana - defines the main objective, object or aim of the treatise
* अधिकरणम् ॥ Adhikarana - gives the topic or topics
* विधानम् ॥ Vidhana - defines the arrangement of the topics
* उद्देशः ॥ Uddesha, निर्देशः ॥ Nirdesha - general pattern of enumeration
For example, Vidhanam, a yukti is used in Arthashastra. It is defined by Kautilya as शास्त्रस्य प्रकरणानुपूर्वी विधानम् to mean 'Treatment of topics in their inherent order'.<ref name=":0" /> Kautilya applies this yukti in his own text, Arthashastra, where प्रकरणाधिकरणसमुद्देशः lists the sections of the work. The subtopics start with विद्यासमुद्देशः (Chapter about Knowledge) वृद्धसंयोगः (Chapter about company of learned elders), इन्द्रियजयः (Chapter about conquering senses), अमात्योत्पत्तिः (Chapter about recruiting ministers) are placed in their natural sequence.

Panini's Ashtadhyayi is another exemplary illustration of this yukti, for it is the masterpiece of most orderly writing. Ancient poeticians (Bhamaha, Vamana, Dandi, Rajashekhara, Hemachandra to name a few) have used this yukti expertly in their works.

In the modern days, this yukti is similar to the outline or table of contents, an arrangement which facilitates the conception of all major and minor topics of a scientific work, their interpretation and enumeration.

=== Stating Theories and Rules ===
Any treatise, literary or scientific, would lay down some specific principles, theories and rules on the basis of research and observation. Some tantrayuktis help codify the observations on which rules are framed. A few are<ref name=":2" />
* नियोगः ॥ Niyoga - an invariable rule
* अपवर्गः ॥ Apavarga - an Exception to the general rule
* विकल्पः ॥ Vikalpa - an optional rule
* उपदेशः ॥ Upadesa - directives, advice (of do's and dont's)
* स्वसंज्ञा ॥ Svasamjna - a technical term
Sushruta gives an example of Apavarga in the context of prescribing medication for poisonous bites. अस्वेद्या विषोपसृष्टा अन्यत्र कीटविषादिति । The rule is - Fomentation should not be applied in the case of poisoning, except those suffering from insect poisoning.

=== Explanation of Concepts ===
A mere statement of rules, concepts, principles, observations may be unconnected and abstract. Yuktis provided the author to explain his concept or theory clearly with examples, analogies, comparisons and illustrations.<ref name=":2" />
* निर्वचनम् ॥ Nirvachana - outlines the etymology of terms
* पूर्वपक्षः ॥ Purvapaksha - preliminary objections (a provisional view)
* अनुमतम् ॥ Anumata - accepting the view of others
* उत्तरपक्षः ॥ Uttarapaksha - final answers (decisions)
* दृष्टान्तः ॥ Drshanta - Use of analogy, illustration to aid in explanation of the concept

=== Style of Expression and Diction ===
A treatise loses its focus when the language is verbose distracting the reader away from the intent of the author. A crisp, unambiguous presentation is essential for any scientific work or even while presenting an abstract concept. An author familiar with the following Tantrayuktis will be well guided to present an orderly and crisp work.
* वाक्यशेषः ॥ Sentence completion
* अर्थापत्तिः ॥ Implication
* समुच्चयः ॥ Collection
* अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् ॥ reference to a past statement
* अनागतावेक्षणम् ॥ reference to a future statement
Thus in the above four instances we see the apt usage of tantrayuktis, as efficient tools in the creation of treatises and scientific texts.

== Tantrayuktis with Illustrations ==
In this section we present the list of tantrayuktis with at least one definition (though each yukti has other meanings given by different scholars), their explanation in english with an illustration of the concept.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Finalized List of Tantrayuktis
!S. No
!Tantrayukti
!Synonyms
!One Definition
!Nomenclature & Explanation
!Illustration
|-
|1
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|अतीतावेक्षा
|यत्पूर्वमुक्तं तदतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् । (Sushruta Samhita)
|Restrospection, to say that it has been previously stated
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: प्रतीयमानो ह्यर्थभेदः प्राक् प्रदर्शितः। The differences of Pratiyamana artha have been previously shown.
|-
|2
|अतिदेशः
|NA
|अन्यसम्बन्धिनां धर्माणामन्यत्रव्यवस्थापनमतिदेशः। (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Extended Application, connecting or extending the properties of one to another interrelated topic.
|
|-
|3
|अधिकरणम्
|NA
|अधिकरणं नाम यमर्थमधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते कर्ता । (Charaka Samhita)
|Subject or topic of discussion, subject matter of the scientific work, a topic of the chapter, section, sentence etc.
|Vamana's work is titled 'काव्यालङ्कारसूत्राणि', it at once suggests that काव्यालङ्कार or The Beauty of Poetry' which is the adhikarana of Vamana's whole work.
|-
|4
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षा, अनागतापेक्षा
|अनागतं भविष्यद्यत्तस्यावेक्षा यथोच्यते । (Tantrayukti)
|Consideration of or Reference to a future statement, enables writer to shorten the discussion of a current topic and to expand it later.
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: द्वितीयोऽपि प्रभेदो वाच्याद्विभिन्नः सप्रपञ्चमग्रे दर्शयिष्यते । Anandavardhana tells his readers in the above statement that he would discuss the अलङ्कारध्वनिः at a future point.
|-
|5
|अनुमतम्
|NA
|परपक्षस्य भिन्नस्याप्यङ्गीकरणमनुमतम् ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Assent, Agreement, acceptance of the views of others.
|Bhamaha's Kavayalankara mentions this yukti in many instances: स्वभावोक्तिरलकार इति केचित्प्रचक्षते । Bhamaha quotes that a few accept Svabhavokti as an Alamkara.
|-
|6
|अपदेशः
|NA
|अपदेशो नाम यत्प्रतिज्ञार्थसाधनाय हेतुवचनम् । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Statement of reason or a cause of something. To quote another author's opinion on a given topic and to express one's own views. Explains the cause/s of an effect.
|Vagbhata mentions: काव्यं ग्राह्यमलङ्कारात् । Kavya should be understood from Alankaras.
|-
|7
|अपवर्गः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गो नाम सामान्योक्त्यनुप्रविष्टस्य विशेषेणाकर्षणं सोपवर्गः ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|An exception to the general rule, a special rule.
|Vamana's Kavyalamkarasutrani mentions this yukti very clearly : पुराणार्थमनर्थकम् । This is a general rule. न वाक्यालङ्कारार्थम् । This is an exception to the above rule.
|-
|8
|अर्थापत्तिः
|NA
|अर्थापत्तिर्नाम यदेकस्मिन्नर्थे उच्यमाने अनुक्तस्याप्यर्थस्य बलादागमनं सार्थापत्तिः । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Implication, Suggested meaning (अापत्तिः does not mean calamity, it means 'obtaining', 'procuring'). Implied meaning is conveyed by the force of the meaning of the words used.
|Vamana mentions that समग्रगुणोपेता वैदर्भी । Vaidarbhi (वैदर्भी) style is full of all poetic attributes (or excellences). Here he implies that the said style is completely flawless and full of good qualities.
|-
|9
|पूर्वपक्षः
|NA
|
|
|
|-
|10
|उत्तरपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|तस्य निर्णयवाक्यमुत्तरपक्षः। (Arthashastra)
|Refutation,
|
|}

== References ==

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-16T17:39:29Z

Sumit: /* Stating Theories and Rules */ adding content

Tantrayukti (Samskrit : तन्त्रयुक्तिः) means the methodology of composing shastra works. The ancient Indians were widely and rightly known for their assiduous pursuit of knowledge (ज्ञानम्) which is considered to be the most sacred thing in the world. They laid down the rules in construction of a shastra, approaching it in an orderly manner, defining all aspects (lakshanas) of a given subject, referring previous literature about a particular topic, presenting new thoughts and theories thereby establishing a comprehensive methodology of composing and interpreting the shastras. Such methods are seen in the modern day scientific compositions and treatises.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan </ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than a dozen books provide us the information detailing how a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra is composed. Every shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using the principles of methodology of those shastra compositions, of which the teachers and students, the critics who expounded theoretical works on subjects, were required to be familiar with.

All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. The ancient methodology for composing scientific theories have 95 constituents, as given by various scholars, which can be classified under the following heads<ref name=":0" />
* तन्त्रयुक्तयः (''tantrayuktayaḥ)'' ॥ 36 Tantrayuktis
* व्याख्यानि (''vyākhyāni)'' ॥ 15 Vyakhyas
* कल्पनाः (''kalpanāḥ)'' ॥ 7 Kalpanas
* आश्रयानि (''āśrayāni)''॥ 20 Ashrayas
* ताच्छील्यानि (''tācchīlyāni)''॥17 Taatchilyas
A brief introduction of the above [[Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)|shastra rachana paddhatis]] contain various elements of writing and presentation of shastras, and of them the most important, Tantrayukti will be undertaken in this topic. It may be noted that many modern day scholars including those in the West have studied about Tantrayukti in different perspectives.

== Etymology ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः), an uncommon word, yet practically applied by all Bharatiya shastrakaras, includes a set of research tools for the composition of shastras. तन्त्रयुक्तिः is comprised of two words तन्त्र (tantra) and युक्तिः (yukti).

=== तन्त्रम् || Tantra ===
The word tantra is derived from the samskrit root or dhatu तनु विस्तारे in the meanings of 'to stretch', to expand, to diffuse, spread. It is also defined as सिद्धान्तः (siddhanta), ओषधिः (Oshadhi), श्रुतिशाखाविशेषः, हेतुः, उभ-यार्थप्रयोजकम् इतिकर्त्तव्यता इति मेदिनी as per Medini kosha.

It is also expressed in the meaning of 'to compose', 'to write' as per The Student's Sanskrit English Dictionary by V. S. Apte. The traditional definition of the word tantra given in Sarvatantra siddhanta padarthalakshana sangraha by Bhikshu Gaurishankara<ref name=":0" />is as follows<blockquote>तनोति विपुलानर्थान् तत्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान् | त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात् तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ||</blockquote><blockquote>''Thus tantra is that which holds the diffused elements or the expanse of a subject; it is one in which are interwoven different thoughts and theories concerning a scientific subject.''<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''Tantra can be termed as that which discusses and details subjects and concepts and also that which protects.''<ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref></blockquote>Charaka samhita gives the list of synonyms of the word tantra as तत्रायुर्वेदः शाखा विद्या सूत्रं ज्ञानं शास्त्रं लक्षणं तन्त्रमिति... Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of veda, vidya (education), sutra (aphorism), jnana (knowledge), shastra, lakshana (definition).<ref name=":2" />

Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory, subject) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Many scholars and poets including Mahakavi Kalidasa have used the word tantra to mean 'a scientific work' as mentioned by Prof. W. K. Lele. <ref name=":0" />

=== युक्तिः || Yukti ===
Yukti (युक्तिः) is a derivative of the the dhatu युज् in the meaning 'to unite', 'join','to employ' etc. The word ''yukti'' is an application, an arrangement, a usage, a means, a device etc.<ref name=":0" /> Sharma has offered an explanation of yukti (युक्तिः) as follows <blockquote>युज्यन्ते सङ्क्ल्प्यन्ते सम्बध्यन्ते परस्परमर्थाः सम्यक्तया प्राकरणिकेऽभिमतेऽर्थे विरोधव्याघातादिदोषमपास्यानया इति युक्तिः | युज् योजने तस्मिन् यक्तिरिति रूपं भवति | </blockquote>Meaning : Yukti is one that removes the imperfections like impropriety, contradiction from the intended meaning and thoroughly unites the meanings (in writings or compositions).Yuj is used to mean 'to arrange'.

=== Meaning ===
तन्त्रस्य युक्तयस्तन्त्रयुक्तयः |

A yukti thus means an inevitable tool, a scientific one, an indispensable device employed in composing a scientific treatise.<ref name=":0" /> Tantrayukti, is therefore, a device of the tantra (shastra). Dr. Jayaraman mentions the various terms in which scholars, both Indian and Western have rendered tantrayukti as follows<ref name=":2" />
# ''Methodology in Sanskrit texts on Science - K. V. Sharma''
# ''Forms of scientific argument - S. C. Vidyabhushana''
# ''Plan of a treatise - Shamasastry''
# ''Method of treatment, maxims for the interpretation of textual topics - Esther Solomon''
# ''Formal elements which gave form to a scientific work - Gerhard Obberhammer''
# ''Methodology of theoretico-scientific treatises in Sanskrit - Dr. W. K. Lele''
# ''Methodology and technique, which enable one to compose and interpret scientific treatises correctly and intelligently - N. E. Muthuswamy''
# ''An expedient in the writing of science - Surendranath Mittal''
Works such as Charaka Samhita, Sushrutasamhita, Ashtangahrdaya and Arthashastra employed tantrayuktis as devices either for diagnostic purposes or for explanation of technical aspects to understand the texts respectively.<ref name=":32">''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref> Thus we see above from the etymological and conventional usages that Tantra denotes a systematic work of literature (on any subject) and yukti is an aid in the composition of such a work to convey the intended concepts with clarity.

== तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥ Tantrayukti ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः) refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. A treatise is comprised of a large number of paragraphs, chapters, sections, sub-sections, explanations, concepts etc as such a scientific writer is required to use a large number of ways to put forth his concept. Thus we see that there are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!S.No.
!कौटल्य
!चरक
!सुश्रुत
!विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण
|-
|1
|<nowiki>अधिकरणम्</nowiki>
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|-
|2
|<nowiki>विधानम्</nowiki>
|योगः
|योगः
|योगः
|-
|3
|<nowiki>योगः</nowiki>
|हेत्वर्थः
|पदार्थः
|पदार्थः
|-
|4
|<nowiki>पदार्थः</nowiki>
|पदार्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|-
|5
|<nowiki>हेत्वर्थः</nowiki>
|प्रदेशः
|उद्धेशः
|उद्धेशः
|-
|6
|<nowiki>उद्धेशः</nowiki>
|उद्धेशः
|निर्देशः
|निर्देशः
|-
|7
|<nowiki>निर्देशः </nowiki>
|निर्देशः
|उपदेशः
|उपदेशः
|-
|8
|<nowiki>उपदेशः</nowiki>
|वाक्यशेषः
|अपदेशः
|अपदेशः
|-
|9
|<nowiki>अपदेशः</nowiki>
|प्रयोजनम्
|प्रदेशः
|प्रदेशः
|-
|10
|<nowiki>अतिदेशः</nowiki>
|उपदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|-
|11
|<nowiki>प्रदेशः</nowiki>
|अपदेशः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गः
|-
|12
|<nowiki>उपमानम्</nowiki>
|अतिदेशः
|वाक्यशेषः
|वाक्यशेषः
|-
|13
|<nowiki>अर्थापत्तिः</nowiki>
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|-
|14
|<nowiki>संशयः</nowiki>
|निर्णयः
|विपर्ययः
|प्रसङ्गः
|-
|15
|<nowiki>प्रसङ्गः</nowiki>
|प्रसङ्गः
|प्रसङ्गः
|एकान्तः
|-
|16
|<nowiki>विपर्ययः</nowiki>
|ऐकान्तः
|एकान्तः
|अनैकान्तः
|-
|17
|<nowiki>वाक्यशेषः</nowiki>
|नैकान्तः
|अनेकान्तः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|-
|18
|<nowiki>अनुमतम्</nowiki>
|अपवर्गः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|-
|19
|<nowiki>व्याख्यानम्</nowiki>
|विपर्ययः
|निर्णयः
|विधानम्
|-
|20
|<nowiki>निर्वचनम्</nowiki>
|पूर्वपक्षः
|अनुमतम्
|विपर्ययः
|-
|21
|<nowiki>निदर्शनम्</nowiki>
|विधानम्
|विधानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|-
|22
|<nowiki>अपवर्गः</nowiki>
|अनुमतम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|-
|23
|<nowiki>स्वसंज्ञा</nowiki>
|व्याख्यानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|संशयः
|-
|24
|<nowiki>पूर्वपक्षः</nowiki>
|संशयः
|संशयः
|अतिव्याख्यानम्
|-
|25
|<nowiki>उत्तरपक्षः</nowiki>
|अतीतावेक्षा
|व्याख्यानम्
|अनुमतम्
|-
|26
|<nowiki>एकान्तः</nowiki>
|अनागतावेक्षा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|-
|27
|<nowiki>अनागतावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|स्वसंज्ञा
|निर्वचनम्
|निर्वचनम्
|-
|28
|<nowiki>अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|ऊह्यम्
|निदर्शनम्
|दृष्टान्तः
|-
|29
|<nowiki>नियोगः</nowiki>
|समुच्चयः
|नियोगः
|नियोगः
|-
|30
|<nowiki>विकल्पः</nowiki>
|निदर्शनम्
|विकल्पः
|विकल्पः
|-
|31
|<nowiki>समुच्चयः</nowiki>
|निर्वचनम्
|समुच्चयः
|समुच्चयः
|-
|32
|<nowiki>ऊह्यम्</nowiki>
|संनियोगः
|ऊह्यम्
|ऊह्यम्
|-
|33
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|विकल्पनम्
| -
| -
|-
|34
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|प्रत्युत्सारः
| -
| -
|-
|35
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|उद्धारः
| -
| -
|-
|36
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|सम्भवः
| -
| -
|}

=== Tantrayukti in Literature ===
All Bharatiya shastras, have been composed based on the tantrayukti system. One can see the application of Tantrayuktis in the composition of scientific literature such as Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana, Arthashastra, Ayurveda, Alankarashastra and Kamashastra. Such a study of methodological application is relevant to modern day studies, experiments and sciences. Here a few applications of tantrayuktis in ancient shastras is described.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" />
# Charaka Samhita (Ayurveda) is the first recorded evidence where Tantrayukti is dealt with. A seminal work on Ayurveda, it comprises of eight Sthanas containing 9295 sutras, of which the eighth sthana called as siddhisthana, has enumerated about 36 tantrayuktis as given in the table given above.
# Sushruta Samhita (Surgical Medicine), a renowned text on Sastrachikitsa (Surgery) composed by Sushruta, has about six sthanas with 8300 sutras in total. Thirtytwo tantrayuktis are detailed in the sixtyfifth adhyaya by Sushruta.
# Ashtangasangraha (Ayurveda) written by Vagbhata (a second text called Ashtangahrdaya) mentions 36 tantrayuktis in the 50th adhyaya if the Uttarasthana. Ashtangahrdaya also mentions Tantrayuktis.
# Vishnudarmottara Purana, enumerates 32 tantrayuktis in the sixth adhyaya of the third kanda.
# Kautilya's Arthashastra (Governance), an oldest available Tantrayukti-s list of 32 devices is from Arthashastra. Kautilya's Arthashastra, an ancient authoritative work on governance, diplomacy, economy, politics and statecraft, defines and illustrates Tantrayuktis in the fifteenth अधिकरणम् (Adhikarana).
# Tantrayuktivichara by Nilamegha (Ayurveda Practitioner from Kerala), a later day text considers 36 tantrayuktis in detail, based on Vagbhata's exposition.
# Nyayasutra bhashyam, by Vatsayana, also mentions about a tantrayukti called Anumata, while discussing the fourth sutra of the first ahnika in the first chapter of Gautama's Nyayasutras.<ref name=":2" />

=== Role of Tantrayuktis ===
Charaka aptly summarizes the role of tantrayuktis as follows<blockquote>यथाऽम्बुजवनस्यार्कः प्रदीपो वेश्मनो यथा ॥ 46</blockquote><blockquote>प्रबोध (न) प्रकाशार्थास्तथा तन्त्रस्य युक्तयः । एकस्मिन्नपि यस्येह शास्त्रे लब्दास्पदा मतिः॥ 47</blockquote><blockquote>स शास्त्रमन्यदप्याशु युक्तिज्ञत्वात् प्रबुध्यते । </blockquote>Meaning : Just as the sun causes a bed of lotuses to blossom, just a a lamp lights up a house, so also the tantrayuktis shed light on the meanings of the scientific subjects. He who gains a thorough knowledge of a shastra along with these tantrayuktis can quickly gain knowledge of another discipline too because of युक्तिज्ञत्वम् । knowledge of yuktis.

Chakrapanidatta further refines Charaka's views by adding that along with bringing out the full exposition of the scientific topic, tantrayuktis also throw light on the hidden meaning of the content. By learning these, a medical practitioner not only saves himself from injudicious handling but also saves the life of the patient.

Sushruta, clearly states that the purpose of tantrayuktis is two-fold namely, the arrangement of the sentences and the organization of the meanings.<ref name=":0" />

== Tantrayukti Illustrations ==
Almost all aspects required for writing a systematic and compact treatise are discussed by yuktis. A few illustrations presented by Dr. Jayaraman, in his paper<ref name=":2" /> are given here.

=== Basic Structure of a Treatise ===
Tantrayuktis such as the following aid the author to format a template, into which the content or the subject matter of choice could be constructed. It forms the foundation on which all aspects of the treatise will stand.
* प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana - defines the main objective, object or aim of the treatise
* अधिकरणम् ॥ Adhikarana - gives the topic or topics
* विधानम् ॥ Vidhana - defines the arrangement of the topics
* उद्देशः ॥ Uddesha, निर्देशः ॥ Nirdesha - general pattern of enumeration
For example, Vidhanam, a yukti is used in Arthashastra. It is defined by Kautilya as शास्त्रस्य प्रकरणानुपूर्वी विधानम् to mean 'Treatment of topics in their inherent order'.<ref name=":0" /> Kautilya applies this yukti in his own text, Arthashastra, where प्रकरणाधिकरणसमुद्देशः lists the sections of the work. The subtopics start with विद्यासमुद्देशः (Chapter about Knowledge) वृद्धसंयोगः (Chapter about company of learned elders), इन्द्रियजयः (Chapter about conquering senses), अमात्योत्पत्तिः (Chapter about recruiting ministers) are placed in their natural sequence.

Panini's Ashtadhyayi is another exemplary illustration of this yukti, for it is the masterpiece of most orderly writing. Ancient poeticians (Bhamaha, Vamana, Dandi, Rajashekhara, Hemachandra to name a few) have used this yukti expertly in their works.

In the modern days, this yukti is similar to the outline or table of contents, an arrangement which facilitates the conception of all major and minor topics of a scientific work, their interpretation and enumeration.

=== Stating Theories and Rules ===
Any treatise, literary or scientific, would lay down some specific principles, theories and rules on the basis of research and observation. Some tantrayuktis help codify the observations on which rules are framed. A few are<ref name=":2" />
* नियोगः ॥ Niyoga - an invariable rule
* अपवर्गः ॥ Apavarga - an Exception to the general rule
* विकल्पः ॥ Vikalpa - an optional rule
* उपदेशः ॥ Upadesa - directives, advice (of do's and dont's)
* स्वसंज्ञा ॥ Svasamjna - a technical term
Sushruta gives an example of Apavarga in the context of prescribing medication for poisonous bites. अस्वेद्या विषोपसृष्टा अन्यत्र कीटविषादिति । The rule is - Fomentation should not be applied in the case of poisoning, except those suffering from insect poisoning.

=== Explanation of Concepts ===
A mere statement of rules, concepts, principles, observations may be unconnected and abstract. Yuktis provided the author to explain his concept or theory clearly with examples, analogies, comparisons and illustrations.<ref name=":2" />
* निर्वचनम् ॥ Nirvachana - outlines the etymology of terms
* पूर्वपक्षः ॥ Purvapaksha - preliminary objections (a provisional view)
* अनुमतम् ॥ Anumata - accepting the view of others
* उत्तरपक्षः ॥ Uttarapaksha - final answers (decisions)
* दृष्टान्तः ॥ Drshanta - Use of analogy, illustration to aid in explanation of the concept

=== Style of Expression and Diction ===
A treatise loses its focus when the language is verbose distracting the reader away from the intent of the author. A crisp, unambiguous presentation is essential for any scientific work or even while presenting an abstract concept. An author familiar with the following Tantrayuktis will be well guided to present an orderly and crisp work.
* वाक्यशेषः ॥ Sentence completion
* अर्थापत्तिः ॥ Implication
* समुच्चयः ॥ Collection
* अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् ॥ reference to a past statement
* अनागतावेक्षणम् ॥ reference to a future statement
Thus in the above four instances we see the apt usage of tantrayuktis, as efficient tools in the creation of treatises and scientific texts.

== Tantrayuktis with Illustrations ==
In this section we present the list of tantrayuktis with at least one definition (though each yukti has other meanings given by different scholars), their explanation in english with an illustration of the concept.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Finalized List of Tantrayuktis
!S. No
!Tantrayukti
!Synonyms
!One Definition
!Nomenclature & Explanation
!Illustration
|-
|1
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|अतीतावेक्षा
|यत्पूर्वमुक्तं तदतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् । (Sushruta Samhita)
|Restrospection, to say that it has been previously stated
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: प्रतीयमानो ह्यर्थभेदः प्राक् प्रदर्शितः। The differences of Pratiyamana artha have been previously shown.
|-
|2
|अतिदेशः
|NA
|अन्यसम्बन्धिनां धर्माणामन्यत्रव्यवस्थापनमतिदेशः। (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Extended Application, connecting or extending the properties of one to another interrelated topic.
|
|-
|3
|अधिकरणम्
|NA
|अधिकरणं नाम यमर्थमधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते कर्ता । (Charaka Samhita)
|Subject or topic of discussion, subject matter of the scientific work, a topic of the chapter, section, sentence etc.
|Vamana's work is titled 'काव्यालङ्कारसूत्राणि', it at once suggests that काव्यालङ्कार or The Beauty of Poetry' which is the adhikarana of Vamana's whole work.
|-
|4
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षा, अनागतापेक्षा
|अनागतं भविष्यद्यत्तस्यावेक्षा यथोच्यते । (Tantrayukti)
|Consideration of or Reference to a future statement, enables writer to shorten the discussion of a current topic and to expand it later.
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: द्वितीयोऽपि प्रभेदो वाच्याद्विभिन्नः सप्रपञ्चमग्रे दर्शयिष्यते । Anandavardhana tells his readers in the above statement that he would discuss the अलङ्कारध्वनिः at a future point.
|-
|5
|अनुमतम्
|NA
|परपक्षस्य भिन्नस्याप्यङ्गीकरणमनुमतम् ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Assent, Agreement, acceptance of the views of others.
|Bhamaha's Kavayalankara mentions this yukti in many instances: स्वभावोक्तिरलकार इति केचित्प्रचक्षते । Bhamaha quotes that a few accept Svabhavokti as an Alamkara.
|-
|6
|अपदेशः
|NA
|अपदेशो नाम यत्प्रतिज्ञार्थसाधनाय हेतुवचनम् । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Statement of reason or a cause of something. To quote another author's opinion on a given topic and to express one's own views. Explains the cause/s of an effect.
|Vagbhata mentions: काव्यं ग्राह्यमलङ्कारात् । Kavya should be understood from Alankaras.
|-
|7
|अपवर्गः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गो नाम सामान्योक्त्यनुप्रविष्टस्य विशेषेणाकर्षणं सोपवर्गः ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|An exception to the general rule, a special rule.
|Vamana's Kavyalamkarasutrani mentions this yukti very clearly : पुराणार्थमनर्थकम् । This is a general rule. न वाक्यालङ्कारार्थम् । This is an exception to the above rule.
|-
|8
|अर्थापत्तिः
|NA
|अर्थापत्तिर्नाम यदेकस्मिन्नर्थे उच्यमाने अनुक्तस्याप्यर्थस्य बलादागमनं सार्थापत्तिः । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Implication, Suggested meaning (अापत्तिः does not mean calamity, it means 'obtaining', 'procuring'). Implied meaning is conveyed by the force of the meaning of the words used.
|Vamana mentions that समग्रगुणोपेता वैदर्भी । Vaidarbhi (वैदर्भी) style is full of all poetic attributes (or excellences). Here he implies that the said style is completely flawless and full of good qualities.
|-
|9
|पूर्वपक्षः
|NA
|
|
|
|-
|10
|उत्तरपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|तस्य निर्णयवाक्यमुत्तरपक्षः। (Arthashastra)
|Refutation,
|
|}

== References ==

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-15T18:12:05Z

Sumit: /* Basic Structure of a Treatise */ adding content

Tantrayukti (Samskrit : तन्त्रयुक्तिः) means the methodology of composing shastra works. The ancient Indians were widely and rightly known for their assiduous pursuit of knowledge (ज्ञानम्) which is considered to be the most sacred thing in the world. They laid down the rules in construction of a shastra, approaching it in an orderly manner, defining all aspects (lakshanas) of a given subject, referring previous literature about a particular topic, presenting new thoughts and theories thereby establishing a comprehensive methodology of composing and interpreting the shastras. Such methods are seen in the modern day scientific compositions and treatises.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan </ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than a dozen books provide us the information detailing how a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra is composed. Every shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using the principles of methodology of those shastra compositions, of which the teachers and students, the critics who expounded theoretical works on subjects, were required to be familiar with.

All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. The ancient methodology for composing scientific theories have 95 constituents, as given by various scholars, which can be classified under the following heads<ref name=":0" />
* तन्त्रयुक्तयः (''tantrayuktayaḥ)'' ॥ 36 Tantrayuktis
* व्याख्यानि (''vyākhyāni)'' ॥ 15 Vyakhyas
* कल्पनाः (''kalpanāḥ)'' ॥ 7 Kalpanas
* आश्रयानि (''āśrayāni)''॥ 20 Ashrayas
* ताच्छील्यानि (''tācchīlyāni)''॥17 Taatchilyas
A brief introduction of the above [[Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)|shastra rachana paddhatis]] contain various elements of writing and presentation of shastras, and of them the most important, Tantrayukti will be undertaken in this topic. It may be noted that many modern day scholars including those in the West have studied about Tantrayukti in different perspectives.

== Etymology ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः), an uncommon word, yet practically applied by all Bharatiya shastrakaras, includes a set of research tools for the composition of shastras. तन्त्रयुक्तिः is comprised of two words तन्त्र (tantra) and युक्तिः (yukti).

=== तन्त्रम् || Tantra ===
The word tantra is derived from the samskrit root or dhatu तनु विस्तारे in the meanings of 'to stretch', to expand, to diffuse, spread. It is also defined as सिद्धान्तः (siddhanta), ओषधिः (Oshadhi), श्रुतिशाखाविशेषः, हेतुः, उभ-यार्थप्रयोजकम् इतिकर्त्तव्यता इति मेदिनी as per Medini kosha.

It is also expressed in the meaning of 'to compose', 'to write' as per The Student's Sanskrit English Dictionary by V. S. Apte. The traditional definition of the word tantra given in Sarvatantra siddhanta padarthalakshana sangraha by Bhikshu Gaurishankara<ref name=":0" />is as follows<blockquote>तनोति विपुलानर्थान् तत्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान् | त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात् तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ||</blockquote><blockquote>''Thus tantra is that which holds the diffused elements or the expanse of a subject; it is one in which are interwoven different thoughts and theories concerning a scientific subject.''<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''Tantra can be termed as that which discusses and details subjects and concepts and also that which protects.''<ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref></blockquote>Charaka samhita gives the list of synonyms of the word tantra as तत्रायुर्वेदः शाखा विद्या सूत्रं ज्ञानं शास्त्रं लक्षणं तन्त्रमिति... Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of veda, vidya (education), sutra (aphorism), jnana (knowledge), shastra, lakshana (definition).<ref name=":2" />

Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory, subject) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Many scholars and poets including Mahakavi Kalidasa have used the word tantra to mean 'a scientific work' as mentioned by Prof. W. K. Lele. <ref name=":0" />

=== युक्तिः || Yukti ===
Yukti (युक्तिः) is a derivative of the the dhatu युज् in the meaning 'to unite', 'join','to employ' etc. The word ''yukti'' is an application, an arrangement, a usage, a means, a device etc.<ref name=":0" /> Sharma has offered an explanation of yukti (युक्तिः) as follows <blockquote>युज्यन्ते सङ्क्ल्प्यन्ते सम्बध्यन्ते परस्परमर्थाः सम्यक्तया प्राकरणिकेऽभिमतेऽर्थे विरोधव्याघातादिदोषमपास्यानया इति युक्तिः | युज् योजने तस्मिन् यक्तिरिति रूपं भवति | </blockquote>Meaning : Yukti is one that removes the imperfections like impropriety, contradiction from the intended meaning and thoroughly unites the meanings (in writings or compositions).Yuj is used to mean 'to arrange'.

=== Meaning ===
तन्त्रस्य युक्तयस्तन्त्रयुक्तयः |

A yukti thus means an inevitable tool, a scientific one, an indispensable device employed in composing a scientific treatise.<ref name=":0" /> Tantrayukti, is therefore, a device of the tantra (shastra). Dr. Jayaraman mentions the various terms in which scholars, both Indian and Western have rendered tantrayukti as follows<ref name=":2" />
# ''Methodology in Sanskrit texts on Science - K. V. Sharma''
# ''Forms of scientific argument - S. C. Vidyabhushana''
# ''Plan of a treatise - Shamasastry''
# ''Method of treatment, maxims for the interpretation of textual topics - Esther Solomon''
# ''Formal elements which gave form to a scientific work - Gerhard Obberhammer''
# ''Methodology of theoretico-scientific treatises in Sanskrit - Dr. W. K. Lele''
# ''Methodology and technique, which enable one to compose and interpret scientific treatises correctly and intelligently - N. E. Muthuswamy''
# ''An expedient in the writing of science - Surendranath Mittal''
Works such as Charaka Samhita, Sushrutasamhita, Ashtangahrdaya and Arthashastra employed tantrayuktis as devices either for diagnostic purposes or for explanation of technical aspects to understand the texts respectively.<ref name=":32">''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref> Thus we see above from the etymological and conventional usages that Tantra denotes a systematic work of literature (on any subject) and yukti is an aid in the composition of such a work to convey the intended concepts with clarity.

== तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥ Tantrayukti ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः) refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. A treatise is comprised of a large number of paragraphs, chapters, sections, sub-sections, explanations, concepts etc as such a scientific writer is required to use a large number of ways to put forth his concept. Thus we see that there are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!S.No.
!कौटल्य
!चरक
!सुश्रुत
!विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण
|-
|1
|<nowiki>अधिकरणम्</nowiki>
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|-
|2
|<nowiki>विधानम्</nowiki>
|योगः
|योगः
|योगः
|-
|3
|<nowiki>योगः</nowiki>
|हेत्वर्थः
|पदार्थः
|पदार्थः
|-
|4
|<nowiki>पदार्थः</nowiki>
|पदार्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|-
|5
|<nowiki>हेत्वर्थः</nowiki>
|प्रदेशः
|उद्धेशः
|उद्धेशः
|-
|6
|<nowiki>उद्धेशः</nowiki>
|उद्धेशः
|निर्देशः
|निर्देशः
|-
|7
|<nowiki>निर्देशः </nowiki>
|निर्देशः
|उपदेशः
|उपदेशः
|-
|8
|<nowiki>उपदेशः</nowiki>
|वाक्यशेषः
|अपदेशः
|अपदेशः
|-
|9
|<nowiki>अपदेशः</nowiki>
|प्रयोजनम्
|प्रदेशः
|प्रदेशः
|-
|10
|<nowiki>अतिदेशः</nowiki>
|उपदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|-
|11
|<nowiki>प्रदेशः</nowiki>
|अपदेशः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गः
|-
|12
|<nowiki>उपमानम्</nowiki>
|अतिदेशः
|वाक्यशेषः
|वाक्यशेषः
|-
|13
|<nowiki>अर्थापत्तिः</nowiki>
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|-
|14
|<nowiki>संशयः</nowiki>
|निर्णयः
|विपर्ययः
|प्रसङ्गः
|-
|15
|<nowiki>प्रसङ्गः</nowiki>
|प्रसङ्गः
|प्रसङ्गः
|एकान्तः
|-
|16
|<nowiki>विपर्ययः</nowiki>
|ऐकान्तः
|एकान्तः
|अनैकान्तः
|-
|17
|<nowiki>वाक्यशेषः</nowiki>
|नैकान्तः
|अनेकान्तः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|-
|18
|<nowiki>अनुमतम्</nowiki>
|अपवर्गः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|-
|19
|<nowiki>व्याख्यानम्</nowiki>
|विपर्ययः
|निर्णयः
|विधानम्
|-
|20
|<nowiki>निर्वचनम्</nowiki>
|पूर्वपक्षः
|अनुमतम्
|विपर्ययः
|-
|21
|<nowiki>निदर्शनम्</nowiki>
|विधानम्
|विधानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|-
|22
|<nowiki>अपवर्गः</nowiki>
|अनुमतम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|-
|23
|<nowiki>स्वसंज्ञा</nowiki>
|व्याख्यानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|संशयः
|-
|24
|<nowiki>पूर्वपक्षः</nowiki>
|संशयः
|संशयः
|अतिव्याख्यानम्
|-
|25
|<nowiki>उत्तरपक्षः</nowiki>
|अतीतावेक्षा
|व्याख्यानम्
|अनुमतम्
|-
|26
|<nowiki>एकान्तः</nowiki>
|अनागतावेक्षा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|-
|27
|<nowiki>अनागतावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|स्वसंज्ञा
|निर्वचनम्
|निर्वचनम्
|-
|28
|<nowiki>अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|ऊह्यम्
|निदर्शनम्
|दृष्टान्तः
|-
|29
|<nowiki>नियोगः</nowiki>
|समुच्चयः
|नियोगः
|नियोगः
|-
|30
|<nowiki>विकल्पः</nowiki>
|निदर्शनम्
|विकल्पः
|विकल्पः
|-
|31
|<nowiki>समुच्चयः</nowiki>
|निर्वचनम्
|समुच्चयः
|समुच्चयः
|-
|32
|<nowiki>ऊह्यम्</nowiki>
|संनियोगः
|ऊह्यम्
|ऊह्यम्
|-
|33
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|विकल्पनम्
| -
| -
|-
|34
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|प्रत्युत्सारः
| -
| -
|-
|35
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|उद्धारः
| -
| -
|-
|36
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|सम्भवः
| -
| -
|}

=== Tantrayukti in Literature ===
All Bharatiya shastras, have been composed based on the tantrayukti system. One can see the application of Tantrayuktis in the composition of scientific literature such as Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana, Arthashastra, Ayurveda, Alankarashastra and Kamashastra. Such a study of methodological application is relevant to modern day studies, experiments and sciences. Here a few applications of tantrayuktis in ancient shastras is described.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" />
# Charaka Samhita (Ayurveda) is the first recorded evidence where Tantrayukti is dealt with. A seminal work on Ayurveda, it comprises of eight Sthanas containing 9295 sutras, of which the eighth sthana called as siddhisthana, has enumerated about 36 tantrayuktis as given in the table given above.
# Sushruta Samhita (Surgical Medicine), a renowned text on Sastrachikitsa (Surgery) composed by Sushruta, has about six sthanas with 8300 sutras in total. Thirtytwo tantrayuktis are detailed in the sixtyfifth adhyaya by Sushruta.
# Ashtangasangraha (Ayurveda) written by Vagbhata (a second text called Ashtangahrdaya) mentions 36 tantrayuktis in the 50th adhyaya if the Uttarasthana. Ashtangahrdaya also mentions Tantrayuktis.
# Vishnudarmottara Purana, enumerates 32 tantrayuktis in the sixth adhyaya of the third kanda.
# Kautilya's Arthashastra (Governance), an oldest available Tantrayukti-s list of 32 devices is from Arthashastra. Kautilya's Arthashastra, an ancient authoritative work on governance, diplomacy, economy, politics and statecraft, defines and illustrates Tantrayuktis in the fifteenth अधिकरणम् (Adhikarana).
# Tantrayuktivichara by Nilamegha (Ayurveda Practitioner from Kerala), a later day text considers 36 tantrayuktis in detail, based on Vagbhata's exposition.
# Nyayasutra bhashyam, by Vatsayana, also mentions about a tantrayukti called Anumata, while discussing the fourth sutra of the first ahnika in the first chapter of Gautama's Nyayasutras.<ref name=":2" />

=== Role of Tantrayuktis ===
Charaka aptly summarizes the role of tantrayuktis as follows<blockquote>यथाऽम्बुजवनस्यार्कः प्रदीपो वेश्मनो यथा ॥ 46</blockquote><blockquote>प्रबोध (न) प्रकाशार्थास्तथा तन्त्रस्य युक्तयः । एकस्मिन्नपि यस्येह शास्त्रे लब्दास्पदा मतिः॥ 47</blockquote><blockquote>स शास्त्रमन्यदप्याशु युक्तिज्ञत्वात् प्रबुध्यते । </blockquote>Meaning : Just as the sun causes a bed of lotuses to blossom, just a a lamp lights up a house, so also the tantrayuktis shed light on the meanings of the scientific subjects. He who gains a thorough knowledge of a shastra along with these tantrayuktis can quickly gain knowledge of another discipline too because of युक्तिज्ञत्वम् । knowledge of yuktis.

Chakrapanidatta further refines Charaka's views by adding that along with bringing out the full exposition of the scientific topic, tantrayuktis also throw light on the hidden meaning of the content. By learning these, a medical practitioner not only saves himself from injudicious handling but also saves the life of the patient.

Sushruta, clearly states that the purpose of tantrayuktis is two-fold namely, the arrangement of the sentences and the organization of the meanings.<ref name=":0" />

== Tantrayukti Illustrations ==
Almost all aspects required for writing a systematic and compact treatise are discussed by yuktis. A few illustrations presented by Dr. Jayaraman, in his paper<ref name=":2" /> are given here.

=== Basic Structure of a Treatise ===
Tantrayuktis such as the following aid the author to format a template, into which the content or the subject matter of choice could be constructed. It forms the foundation on which all aspects of the treatise will stand.
* प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana - defines the main objective, object or aim of the treatise
* अधिकरणम् ॥ Adhikarana - gives the topic or topics
* विधानम् ॥ Vidhana - defines the arrangement of the topics
* उद्देशः ॥ Uddesha, निर्देशः ॥ Nirdesha - general pattern of enumeration
For example, Vidhanam, a yukti is used in Arthashastra. It is defined by Kautilya as शास्त्रस्य प्रकरणानुपूर्वी विधानम् to mean 'Treatment of topics in their inherent order'.<ref name=":0" /> Kautilya applies this yukti in his own text, Arthashastra, where प्रकरणाधिकरणसमुद्देशः lists the sections of the work. The subtopics start with विद्यासमुद्देशः (Chapter about Knowledge) वृद्धसंयोगः (Chapter about company of learned elders), इन्द्रियजयः (Chapter about conquering senses), अमात्योत्पत्तिः (Chapter about recruiting ministers) are placed in their natural sequence.

Panini's Ashtadhyayi is another exemplary illustration of this yukti, for it is the masterpiece of most orderly writing. Ancient poeticians (Bhamaha, Vamana, Dandi, Rajashekhara, Hemachandra to name a few) have used this yukti expertly in their works.

In the modern days, this yukti is similar to the outline or table of contents, an arrangement which facilitates the conception of all major and minor topics of a scientific work, their interpretation and enumeration.

=== Stating Theories and Rules ===
Any treatise, literary or scientific, would lay down some specific principles, theories and rules on the basis of research and observation. Some tantrayuktis help codify the observations on which rules are framed. Some are
* नियोगः
* अपवर्गः
* विकल्पः
* उपदेशः
* स्वसंज्ञा
{| class="wikitable"
|+Finalized List of Tantrayuktis
!S. No
!Tantrayukti
!Synonyms
!One Definition
!Nomenclature & Explanation
!Illustration
|-
|1
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|अतीतावेक्षा
|यत्पूर्वमुक्तं तदतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् । (Sushruta Samhita)
|Restrospection, to say that it has been previously stated
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: प्रतीयमानो ह्यर्थभेदः प्राक् प्रदर्शितः। The differences of Pratiyamana artha have been previously shown.
|-
|2
|अतिदेशः
|NA
|अन्यसम्बन्धिनां धर्माणामन्यत्रव्यवस्थापनमतिदेशः। (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Extended Application, connecting or extending the properties of one to another interrelated topic.
|
|-
|3
|अधिकरणम्
|NA
|अधिकरणं नाम यमर्थमधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते कर्ता । (Charaka Samhita)
|Subject or topic of discussion, subject matter of the scientific work, a topic of the chapter, section, sentence etc.
|Vamana's work is titled 'काव्यालङ्कारसूत्राणि', it at once suggests that काव्यालङ्कार or The Beauty of Poetry' which is the adhikarana of Vamana's whole work.
|-
|4
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षा, अनागतापेक्षा
|अनागतं भविष्यद्यत्तस्यावेक्षा यथोच्यते । (Tantrayukti)
|Consideration of or Reference to a future statement, enables writer to shorten the discussion of a current topic and to expand it later.
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: द्वितीयोऽपि प्रभेदो वाच्याद्विभिन्नः सप्रपञ्चमग्रे दर्शयिष्यते । Anandavardhana tells his readers in the above statement that he would discuss the अलङ्कारध्वनिः at a future point.
|-
|5
|अनुमतम्
|NA
|परपक्षस्य भिन्नस्याप्यङ्गीकरणमनुमतम् ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Assent, Agreement, acceptance of the views of others.
|Bhamaha's Kavayalankara mentions this yukti in many instances: स्वभावोक्तिरलकार इति केचित्प्रचक्षते । Bhamaha quotes that a few accept Svabhavokti as an Alamkara.
|-
|6
|अपदेशः
|NA
|अपदेशो नाम यत्प्रतिज्ञार्थसाधनाय हेतुवचनम् । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Statement of reason or a cause of something. To quote another author's opinion on a given topic and to express one's own views. Explains the cause/s of an effect.
|Vagbhata mentions: काव्यं ग्राह्यमलङ्कारात् । Kavya should be understood from Alankaras.
|-
|7
|अपवर्गः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गो नाम सामान्योक्त्यनुप्रविष्टस्य विशेषेणाकर्षणं सोपवर्गः ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|An exception to the general rule, a special rule.
|Vamana's Kavyalamkarasutrani mentions this yukti very clearly : पुराणार्थमनर्थकम् । This is a general rule. न वाक्यालङ्कारार्थम् । This is an exception to the above rule.
|-
|8
|अर्थापत्तिः
|NA
|अर्थापत्तिर्नाम यदेकस्मिन्नर्थे उच्यमाने अनुक्तस्याप्यर्थस्य बलादागमनं सार्थापत्तिः । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Implication, Suggested meaning (अापत्तिः does not mean calamity, it means 'obtaining', 'procuring'). Implied meaning is conveyed by the force of the meaning of the words used.
|Vamana mentions that समग्रगुणोपेता वैदर्भी । Vaidarbhi (वैदर्भी) style is full of all poetic attributes (or excellences). Here he implies that the said style is completely flawless and full of good qualities.
|-
|9
|पूर्वपक्षः
|NA
|
|
|
|-
|10
|उत्तरपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|तस्य निर्णयवाक्यमुत्तरपक्षः। (Arthashastra)
|Refutation,
|
|}

== References ==

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-15T17:59:13Z

Sumit: /* Basic Structure of a Treatise */ adding content

Tantrayukti (Samskrit : तन्त्रयुक्तिः) means the methodology of composing shastra works. The ancient Indians were widely and rightly known for their assiduous pursuit of knowledge (ज्ञानम्) which is considered to be the most sacred thing in the world. They laid down the rules in construction of a shastra, approaching it in an orderly manner, defining all aspects (lakshanas) of a given subject, referring previous literature about a particular topic, presenting new thoughts and theories thereby establishing a comprehensive methodology of composing and interpreting the shastras. Such methods are seen in the modern day scientific compositions and treatises.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan </ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than a dozen books provide us the information detailing how a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra is composed. Every shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using the principles of methodology of those shastra compositions, of which the teachers and students, the critics who expounded theoretical works on subjects, were required to be familiar with.

All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. The ancient methodology for composing scientific theories have 95 constituents, as given by various scholars, which can be classified under the following heads<ref name=":0" />
* तन्त्रयुक्तयः (''tantrayuktayaḥ)'' ॥ 36 Tantrayuktis
* व्याख्यानि (''vyākhyāni)'' ॥ 15 Vyakhyas
* कल्पनाः (''kalpanāḥ)'' ॥ 7 Kalpanas
* आश्रयानि (''āśrayāni)''॥ 20 Ashrayas
* ताच्छील्यानि (''tācchīlyāni)''॥17 Taatchilyas
A brief introduction of the above [[Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)|shastra rachana paddhatis]] contain various elements of writing and presentation of shastras, and of them the most important, Tantrayukti will be undertaken in this topic. It may be noted that many modern day scholars including those in the West have studied about Tantrayukti in different perspectives.

== Etymology ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः), an uncommon word, yet practically applied by all Bharatiya shastrakaras, includes a set of research tools for the composition of shastras. तन्त्रयुक्तिः is comprised of two words तन्त्र (tantra) and युक्तिः (yukti).

=== तन्त्रम् || Tantra ===
The word tantra is derived from the samskrit root or dhatu तनु विस्तारे in the meanings of 'to stretch', to expand, to diffuse, spread. It is also defined as सिद्धान्तः (siddhanta), ओषधिः (Oshadhi), श्रुतिशाखाविशेषः, हेतुः, उभ-यार्थप्रयोजकम् इतिकर्त्तव्यता इति मेदिनी as per Medini kosha.

It is also expressed in the meaning of 'to compose', 'to write' as per The Student's Sanskrit English Dictionary by V. S. Apte. The traditional definition of the word tantra given in Sarvatantra siddhanta padarthalakshana sangraha by Bhikshu Gaurishankara<ref name=":0" />is as follows<blockquote>तनोति विपुलानर्थान् तत्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान् | त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात् तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ||</blockquote><blockquote>''Thus tantra is that which holds the diffused elements or the expanse of a subject; it is one in which are interwoven different thoughts and theories concerning a scientific subject.''<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''Tantra can be termed as that which discusses and details subjects and concepts and also that which protects.''<ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref></blockquote>Charaka samhita gives the list of synonyms of the word tantra as तत्रायुर्वेदः शाखा विद्या सूत्रं ज्ञानं शास्त्रं लक्षणं तन्त्रमिति... Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of veda, vidya (education), sutra (aphorism), jnana (knowledge), shastra, lakshana (definition).<ref name=":2" />

Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory, subject) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Many scholars and poets including Mahakavi Kalidasa have used the word tantra to mean 'a scientific work' as mentioned by Prof. W. K. Lele. <ref name=":0" />

=== युक्तिः || Yukti ===
Yukti (युक्तिः) is a derivative of the the dhatu युज् in the meaning 'to unite', 'join','to employ' etc. The word ''yukti'' is an application, an arrangement, a usage, a means, a device etc.<ref name=":0" /> Sharma has offered an explanation of yukti (युक्तिः) as follows <blockquote>युज्यन्ते सङ्क्ल्प्यन्ते सम्बध्यन्ते परस्परमर्थाः सम्यक्तया प्राकरणिकेऽभिमतेऽर्थे विरोधव्याघातादिदोषमपास्यानया इति युक्तिः | युज् योजने तस्मिन् यक्तिरिति रूपं भवति | </blockquote>Meaning : Yukti is one that removes the imperfections like impropriety, contradiction from the intended meaning and thoroughly unites the meanings (in writings or compositions).Yuj is used to mean 'to arrange'.

=== Meaning ===
तन्त्रस्य युक्तयस्तन्त्रयुक्तयः |

A yukti thus means an inevitable tool, a scientific one, an indispensable device employed in composing a scientific treatise.<ref name=":0" /> Tantrayukti, is therefore, a device of the tantra (shastra). Dr. Jayaraman mentions the various terms in which scholars, both Indian and Western have rendered tantrayukti as follows<ref name=":2" />
# ''Methodology in Sanskrit texts on Science - K. V. Sharma''
# ''Forms of scientific argument - S. C. Vidyabhushana''
# ''Plan of a treatise - Shamasastry''
# ''Method of treatment, maxims for the interpretation of textual topics - Esther Solomon''
# ''Formal elements which gave form to a scientific work - Gerhard Obberhammer''
# ''Methodology of theoretico-scientific treatises in Sanskrit - Dr. W. K. Lele''
# ''Methodology and technique, which enable one to compose and interpret scientific treatises correctly and intelligently - N. E. Muthuswamy''
# ''An expedient in the writing of science - Surendranath Mittal''
Works such as Charaka Samhita, Sushrutasamhita, Ashtangahrdaya and Arthashastra employed tantrayuktis as devices either for diagnostic purposes or for explanation of technical aspects to understand the texts respectively.<ref name=":32">''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref> Thus we see above from the etymological and conventional usages that Tantra denotes a systematic work of literature (on any subject) and yukti is an aid in the composition of such a work to convey the intended concepts with clarity.

== तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥ Tantrayukti ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः) refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. A treatise is comprised of a large number of paragraphs, chapters, sections, sub-sections, explanations, concepts etc as such a scientific writer is required to use a large number of ways to put forth his concept. Thus we see that there are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!S.No.
!कौटल्य
!चरक
!सुश्रुत
!विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण
|-
|1
|<nowiki>अधिकरणम्</nowiki>
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|-
|2
|<nowiki>विधानम्</nowiki>
|योगः
|योगः
|योगः
|-
|3
|<nowiki>योगः</nowiki>
|हेत्वर्थः
|पदार्थः
|पदार्थः
|-
|4
|<nowiki>पदार्थः</nowiki>
|पदार्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|-
|5
|<nowiki>हेत्वर्थः</nowiki>
|प्रदेशः
|उद्धेशः
|उद्धेशः
|-
|6
|<nowiki>उद्धेशः</nowiki>
|उद्धेशः
|निर्देशः
|निर्देशः
|-
|7
|<nowiki>निर्देशः </nowiki>
|निर्देशः
|उपदेशः
|उपदेशः
|-
|8
|<nowiki>उपदेशः</nowiki>
|वाक्यशेषः
|अपदेशः
|अपदेशः
|-
|9
|<nowiki>अपदेशः</nowiki>
|प्रयोजनम्
|प्रदेशः
|प्रदेशः
|-
|10
|<nowiki>अतिदेशः</nowiki>
|उपदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|-
|11
|<nowiki>प्रदेशः</nowiki>
|अपदेशः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गः
|-
|12
|<nowiki>उपमानम्</nowiki>
|अतिदेशः
|वाक्यशेषः
|वाक्यशेषः
|-
|13
|<nowiki>अर्थापत्तिः</nowiki>
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|-
|14
|<nowiki>संशयः</nowiki>
|निर्णयः
|विपर्ययः
|प्रसङ्गः
|-
|15
|<nowiki>प्रसङ्गः</nowiki>
|प्रसङ्गः
|प्रसङ्गः
|एकान्तः
|-
|16
|<nowiki>विपर्ययः</nowiki>
|ऐकान्तः
|एकान्तः
|अनैकान्तः
|-
|17
|<nowiki>वाक्यशेषः</nowiki>
|नैकान्तः
|अनेकान्तः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|-
|18
|<nowiki>अनुमतम्</nowiki>
|अपवर्गः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|-
|19
|<nowiki>व्याख्यानम्</nowiki>
|विपर्ययः
|निर्णयः
|विधानम्
|-
|20
|<nowiki>निर्वचनम्</nowiki>
|पूर्वपक्षः
|अनुमतम्
|विपर्ययः
|-
|21
|<nowiki>निदर्शनम्</nowiki>
|विधानम्
|विधानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|-
|22
|<nowiki>अपवर्गः</nowiki>
|अनुमतम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|-
|23
|<nowiki>स्वसंज्ञा</nowiki>
|व्याख्यानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|संशयः
|-
|24
|<nowiki>पूर्वपक्षः</nowiki>
|संशयः
|संशयः
|अतिव्याख्यानम्
|-
|25
|<nowiki>उत्तरपक्षः</nowiki>
|अतीतावेक्षा
|व्याख्यानम्
|अनुमतम्
|-
|26
|<nowiki>एकान्तः</nowiki>
|अनागतावेक्षा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|-
|27
|<nowiki>अनागतावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|स्वसंज्ञा
|निर्वचनम्
|निर्वचनम्
|-
|28
|<nowiki>अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|ऊह्यम्
|निदर्शनम्
|दृष्टान्तः
|-
|29
|<nowiki>नियोगः</nowiki>
|समुच्चयः
|नियोगः
|नियोगः
|-
|30
|<nowiki>विकल्पः</nowiki>
|निदर्शनम्
|विकल्पः
|विकल्पः
|-
|31
|<nowiki>समुच्चयः</nowiki>
|निर्वचनम्
|समुच्चयः
|समुच्चयः
|-
|32
|<nowiki>ऊह्यम्</nowiki>
|संनियोगः
|ऊह्यम्
|ऊह्यम्
|-
|33
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|विकल्पनम्
| -
| -
|-
|34
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|प्रत्युत्सारः
| -
| -
|-
|35
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|उद्धारः
| -
| -
|-
|36
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|सम्भवः
| -
| -
|}

=== Tantrayukti in Literature ===
All Bharatiya shastras, have been composed based on the tantrayukti system. One can see the application of Tantrayuktis in the composition of scientific literature such as Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana, Arthashastra, Ayurveda, Alankarashastra and Kamashastra. Such a study of methodological application is relevant to modern day studies, experiments and sciences. Here a few applications of tantrayuktis in ancient shastras is described.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" />
# Charaka Samhita (Ayurveda) is the first recorded evidence where Tantrayukti is dealt with. A seminal work on Ayurveda, it comprises of eight Sthanas containing 9295 sutras, of which the eighth sthana called as siddhisthana, has enumerated about 36 tantrayuktis as given in the table given above.
# Sushruta Samhita (Surgical Medicine), a renowned text on Sastrachikitsa (Surgery) composed by Sushruta, has about six sthanas with 8300 sutras in total. Thirtytwo tantrayuktis are detailed in the sixtyfifth adhyaya by Sushruta.
# Ashtangasangraha (Ayurveda) written by Vagbhata (a second text called Ashtangahrdaya) mentions 36 tantrayuktis in the 50th adhyaya if the Uttarasthana. Ashtangahrdaya also mentions Tantrayuktis.
# Vishnudarmottara Purana, enumerates 32 tantrayuktis in the sixth adhyaya of the third kanda.
# Kautilya's Arthashastra (Governance), an oldest available Tantrayukti-s list of 32 devices is from Arthashastra. Kautilya's Arthashastra, an ancient authoritative work on governance, diplomacy, economy, politics and statecraft, defines and illustrates Tantrayuktis in the fifteenth अधिकरणम् (Adhikarana).
# Tantrayuktivichara by Nilamegha (Ayurveda Practitioner from Kerala), a later day text considers 36 tantrayuktis in detail, based on Vagbhata's exposition.
# Nyayasutra bhashyam, by Vatsayana, also mentions about a tantrayukti called Anumata, while discussing the fourth sutra of the first ahnika in the first chapter of Gautama's Nyayasutras.<ref name=":2" />

=== Role of Tantrayuktis ===
Charaka aptly summarizes the role of tantrayuktis as follows<blockquote>यथाऽम्बुजवनस्यार्कः प्रदीपो वेश्मनो यथा ॥ 46</blockquote><blockquote>प्रबोध (न) प्रकाशार्थास्तथा तन्त्रस्य युक्तयः । एकस्मिन्नपि यस्येह शास्त्रे लब्दास्पदा मतिः॥ 47</blockquote><blockquote>स शास्त्रमन्यदप्याशु युक्तिज्ञत्वात् प्रबुध्यते । </blockquote>Meaning : Just as the sun causes a bed of lotuses to blossom, just a a lamp lights up a house, so also the tantrayuktis shed light on the meanings of the scientific subjects. He who gains a thorough knowledge of a shastra along with these tantrayuktis can quickly gain knowledge of another discipline too because of युक्तिज्ञत्वम् । knowledge of yuktis.

Chakrapanidatta further refines Charaka's views by adding that along with bringing out the full exposition of the scientific topic, tantrayuktis also throw light on the hidden meaning of the content. By learning these, a medical practitioner not only saves himself from injudicious handling but also saves the life of the patient.

Sushruta, clearly states that the purpose of tantrayuktis is two-fold namely, the arrangement of the sentences and the organization of the meanings.<ref name=":0" />

== Tantrayukti Illustrations ==
Almost all aspects required for writing a systematic and compact treatise are discussed by yuktis. A few illustrations presented by Dr. Jayaraman, in his paper<ref name=":2" /> are given here.

=== Basic Structure of a Treatise ===
Tantrayuktis such as the following aid the author to format a template, into which the content or the subject matter of choice could be constructed. It forms the foundation on which all aspects of the treatise will stand.
* प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana - defines the main objective, object or aim of the treatise
* अधिकरणम् ॥ Adhikarana - gives the topic or topics
* विधानम् ॥ Vidhana - defines the arrangement of the topics
* उद्देशः ॥ Uddesha, निर्देशः ॥Nirdesha - general pattern of enumeration
For example, Vidhanam, a yukti is used in Arthashastra. It is defined by Kautilya as शास्त्रस्य प्रकरणानुपूर्वी विधानम् to mean 'Treatment of topics in their inherent order'.<ref name=":0" /> Kautilya applies this yukti in his own text, Arthashastra, where प्रकरणाधिकरणसमुद्देशः lists the sections of the work. The subtopics start with विद्यासमुद्देशः (Chapter about Knowledge) वृद्धसंयोगः (Chapter about company of learned elders), इन्द्रियजयः (Chapter about conquering senses), अमात्योत्पत्तिः (Chapter about recruiting ministers) are placed in their natural sequence.

Panini's Ashtadhyayi is another exemplary illustration of this yukti, for it is the masterpiece of most orderly writing. Ancient poeticians (Bhamaha, Vamana, Dandi, Rajashekhara, Hemachandra to name a few) have used this yukti expertly in their works.

In the modern days, this yukti is similar to the outline or table of contents, an arrangement which facilitates the conception of all major and minor topics of a scientific work, their interpretation and enumeration.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Finalized List of Tantrayuktis
!S. No
!Tantrayukti
!Synonyms
!One Definition
!Nomenclature & Explanation
!Illustration
|-
|1
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|अतीतावेक्षा
|यत्पूर्वमुक्तं तदतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् । (Sushruta Samhita)
|Restrospection, to say that it has been previously stated
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: प्रतीयमानो ह्यर्थभेदः प्राक् प्रदर्शितः। The differences of Pratiyamana artha have been previously shown.
|-
|2
|अतिदेशः
|NA
|अन्यसम्बन्धिनां धर्माणामन्यत्रव्यवस्थापनमतिदेशः। (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Extended Application, connecting or extending the properties of one to another interrelated topic.
|
|-
|3
|अधिकरणम्
|NA
|अधिकरणं नाम यमर्थमधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते कर्ता । (Charaka Samhita)
|Subject or topic of discussion, subject matter of the scientific work, a topic of the chapter, section, sentence etc.
|Vamana's work is titled 'काव्यालङ्कारसूत्राणि', it at once suggests that काव्यालङ्कार or The Beauty of Poetry' which is the adhikarana of Vamana's whole work.
|-
|4
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षा, अनागतापेक्षा
|अनागतं भविष्यद्यत्तस्यावेक्षा यथोच्यते । (Tantrayukti)
|Consideration of or Reference to a future statement, enables writer to shorten the discussion of a current topic and to expand it later.
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: द्वितीयोऽपि प्रभेदो वाच्याद्विभिन्नः सप्रपञ्चमग्रे दर्शयिष्यते । Anandavardhana tells his readers in the above statement that he would discuss the अलङ्कारध्वनिः at a future point.
|-
|5
|अनुमतम्
|NA
|परपक्षस्य भिन्नस्याप्यङ्गीकरणमनुमतम् ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Assent, Agreement, acceptance of the views of others.
|Bhamaha's Kavayalankara mentions this yukti in many instances: स्वभावोक्तिरलकार इति केचित्प्रचक्षते । Bhamaha quotes that a few accept Svabhavokti as an Alamkara.
|-
|6
|अपदेशः
|NA
|अपदेशो नाम यत्प्रतिज्ञार्थसाधनाय हेतुवचनम् । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Statement of reason or a cause of something. To quote another author's opinion on a given topic and to express one's own views. Explains the cause/s of an effect.
|Vagbhata mentions: काव्यं ग्राह्यमलङ्कारात् । Kavya should be understood from Alankaras.
|-
|7
|अपवर्गः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गो नाम सामान्योक्त्यनुप्रविष्टस्य विशेषेणाकर्षणं सोपवर्गः ।(Tantrayukti Vichara)
|An exception to the general rule, a special rule.
|Vamana's Kavyalamkarasutrani mentions this yukti very clearly : पुराणार्थमनर्थकम् । This is a general rule. न वाक्यालङ्कारार्थम् । This is an exception to the above rule.
|-
|8
|अर्थापत्तिः
|NA
|अर्थापत्तिर्नाम यदेकस्मिन्नर्थे उच्यमाने अनुक्तस्याप्यर्थस्य बलादागमनं सार्थापत्तिः । (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Implication, Suggested meaning (अापत्तिः does not mean calamity, it means 'obtaining', 'procuring'). Implied meaning is conveyed by the force of the meaning of the words used.
|Vamana mentions that समग्रगुणोपेता वैदर्भी । Vaidarbhi (वैदर्भी) style is full of all poetic attributes (or excellences). Here he implies that the said style is completely flawless and full of good qualities.
|-
|9
|पूर्वपक्षः
|NA
|
|
|
|-
|10
|उत्तरपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|तस्य निर्णयवाक्यमुत्तरपक्षः। (Arthashastra)
|Refutation,
|
|}

== References ==

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-14T17:02:17Z

Sumit: /* Basic Structure of a Treatise */ adding content

Tantrayukti (Samskrit : तन्त्रयुक्तिः) means the methodology of composing shastra works. The ancient Indians were widely and rightly known for their assiduous pursuit of knowledge (ज्ञानम्) which is considered to be the most sacred thing in the world. They laid down the rules in construction of a shastra, approaching it in an orderly manner, defining all aspects (lakshanas) of a given subject, referring previous literature about a particular topic, presenting new thoughts and theories thereby establishing a comprehensive methodology of composing and interpreting the shastra which are lately seen in the modern day scientific compositions or treatises.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan </ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than a dozen books provide us the information detailing how a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra is composed. Every shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using the principles of methodology of those shastra compositions, of which the teachers and students, the critics who expounded theoretical works on subjects, were required to be familiar with.

All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. The ancient methodology for composing scientific theories have 95 constituents, as given by various scholars, which can be classified under the following heads<ref name=":0" />
* तन्त्रयुक्तयः (''tantrayuktayaḥ)'' ॥ 36 Tantrayuktis
* व्याख्यानि (''vyākhyāni)'' ॥ 15 Vyakhyas
* कल्पनाः (''kalpanāḥ)'' ॥ 7 Kalpanas
* आश्रयानि (''āśrayāni)''॥ 20 Ashrayas
* ताच्छील्यानि (''tācchīlyāni)''॥17 Taatchilyas
A brief introduction of the above [[Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)|shastra rachana paddhatis]] contain various elements of writing and presentation of shastras, and of them the most important, Tantrayukti will be undertaken in this topic. It may be noted that many modern day scholars including those in the West have studied about Tantrayukti in different perspectives.

== Etymology ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः), an uncommon word, yet practically applied by all Bharatiya shastrakaras, includes a set of research tools for the composition of shastras. तन्त्रयुक्तिः is comprised of two words तन्त्र (tantra) and युक्तिः (yukti).

=== तन्त्रम् || Tantra ===
The word tantra is derived from the samskrit root or dhatu तनु विस्तारे in the meanings of 'to stretch', to expand, to diffuse, spread. It is also defined as सिद्धान्तः (siddhanta), ओषधिः (Oshadhi), श्रुतिशाखाविशेषः, हेतुः, उभ-यार्थप्रयोजकम् इतिकर्त्तव्यता इति मेदिनी as per Medini kosha.

It is also expressed in the meaning of 'to compose', 'to write' as per The Student's Sanskrit English Dictionary by V. S. Apte. The traditional definition of the word tantra given in Sarvatantra siddhanta padarthalakshana sangraha by Bhikshu Gaurishankara<ref name=":0" />is as follows<blockquote>तनोति विपुलानर्थान् तत्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान् | त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात् तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ||</blockquote><blockquote>''Thus tantra is that which holds the diffused elements or the expanse of a subject; it is one in which are interwoven different thoughts and theories concerning a scientific subject.''<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''Tantra can be termed as that which discusses and details subjects and concepts and also that which protects.''<ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref></blockquote>Charaka samhita gives the list of synonyms of the word tantra as तत्रायुर्वेदः शाखा विद्या सूत्रं ज्ञानं शास्त्रं लक्षणं तन्त्रमिति... Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of veda, vidya (education), sutra (aphorism), jnana (knowledge), shastra, lakshana (definition).<ref name=":2" />

Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory, subject) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Many scholars and poets including Mahakavi Kalidasa have used the word tantra to mean 'a scientific work' as mentioned by Prof. W. K. Lele. <ref name=":0" />

=== युक्तिः || Yukti ===
Yukti (युक्तिः) is a derivative of the the dhatu युज् in the meaning 'to unite', 'join','to employ' etc. The word ''yukti'' is an application, an arrangement, a usage, a means, a device etc.<ref name=":0" /> Sharma has offered an explanation of yukti (युक्तिः) as follows <blockquote>युज्यन्ते सङ्क्ल्प्यन्ते सम्बध्यन्ते परस्परमर्थाः सम्यक्तया प्राकरणिकेऽभिमतेऽर्थे विरोधव्याघातादिदोषमपास्यानया इति युक्तिः | युज् योजने तस्मिन् यक्तिरिति रूपं भवति | </blockquote>Meaning : Yukti is one that removes the imperfections like impropriety, contradiction from the intended meaning and thoroughly unites the meanings (in writings or compositions).Yuj is used to mean 'to arrange'.

=== Meaning ===
तन्त्रस्य युक्तयस्तन्त्रयुक्तयः |

A yukti thus means an inevitable tool, a scientific one, an indispensable device employed in composing a scientific treatise.<ref name=":0" /> Tantrayukti, is therefore, a device of the tantra (shastra). Dr. Jayaraman mentions the various terms in which scholars, both Indian and Western have rendered tantrayukti as follows<ref name=":2" />
# ''Methodology in Sanskrit texts on Science - K. V. Sharma''
# ''Forms of scientific argument - S. C. Vidyabhushana''
# ''Plan of a treatise - Shamasastry''
# ''Method of treatment, maxims for the interpretation of textual topics - Esther Solomon''
# ''Formal elements which gave form to a scientific work - Gerhard Obberhammer''
# ''Methodology of theoretico-scientific treatises in Sanskrit - Dr. W. K. Lele''
# ''Methodology and technique, which enable one to compose and interpret scientific treatises correctly and intelligently - N. E. Muthuswamy''
# ''An expedient in the writing of science - Surendranath Mittal''
Works such as Charaka Samhita, Sushrutasamhita, Ashtangahrdaya and Arthashastra employed tantrayuktis as devices either for diagnostic purposes or for explanation of technical aspects to understand the texts respectively.<ref name=":32">''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref> Thus we see above from the etymological and conventional usages that Tantra denotes a systematic work of literature (on any subject) and yukti is an aid in the composition of such a work to convey the intended concepts with clarity.

== तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥ Tantrayukti ==
Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः) refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. A treatise is comprised of a large number of paragraphs, chapters, sections, sub-sections, explanations, concepts etc as such a scientific writer is required to use a large number of ways to put forth his concept. Thus we see that there are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!S.No.
!कौटल्य
!चरक
!सुश्रुत
!विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण
|-
|1
|<nowiki>अधिकरणम्</nowiki>
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|अधिकरणम्
|-
|2
|<nowiki>विधानम्</nowiki>
|योगः
|योगः
|योगः
|-
|3
|<nowiki>योगः</nowiki>
|हेत्वर्थः
|पदार्थः
|पदार्थः
|-
|4
|<nowiki>पदार्थः</nowiki>
|पदार्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|हेत्वर्थः
|-
|5
|<nowiki>हेत्वर्थः</nowiki>
|प्रदेशः
|उद्धेशः
|उद्धेशः
|-
|6
|<nowiki>उद्धेशः</nowiki>
|उद्धेशः
|निर्देशः
|निर्देशः
|-
|7
|<nowiki>निर्देशः </nowiki>
|निर्देशः
|उपदेशः
|उपदेशः
|-
|8
|<nowiki>उपदेशः</nowiki>
|वाक्यशेषः
|अपदेशः
|अपदेशः
|-
|9
|<nowiki>अपदेशः</nowiki>
|प्रयोजनम्
|प्रदेशः
|प्रदेशः
|-
|10
|<nowiki>अतिदेशः</nowiki>
|उपदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|अतिदेशः
|-
|11
|<nowiki>प्रदेशः</nowiki>
|अपदेशः
|अपवर्जः
|अपवर्गः
|-
|12
|<nowiki>उपमानम्</nowiki>
|अतिदेशः
|वाक्यशेषः
|वाक्यशेषः
|-
|13
|<nowiki>अर्थापत्तिः</nowiki>
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|अर्थापत्तिः
|-
|14
|<nowiki>संशयः</nowiki>
|निर्णयः
|विपर्ययः
|प्रसङ्गः
|-
|15
|<nowiki>प्रसङ्गः</nowiki>
|प्रसङ्गः
|प्रसङ्गः
|एकान्तः
|-
|16
|<nowiki>विपर्ययः</nowiki>
|ऐकान्तः
|एकान्तः
|अनैकान्तः
|-
|17
|<nowiki>वाक्यशेषः</nowiki>
|नैकान्तः
|अनेकान्तः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|-
|18
|<nowiki>अनुमतम्</nowiki>
|अपवर्गः
|पूर्वपक्षः
|निर्णयः
|-
|19
|<nowiki>व्याख्यानम्</nowiki>
|विपर्ययः
|निर्णयः
|विधानम्
|-
|20
|<nowiki>निर्वचनम्</nowiki>
|पूर्वपक्षः
|अनुमतम्
|विपर्ययः
|-
|21
|<nowiki>निदर्शनम्</nowiki>
|विधानम्
|विधानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|-
|22
|<nowiki>अपवर्गः</nowiki>
|अनुमतम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|-
|23
|<nowiki>स्वसंज्ञा</nowiki>
|व्याख्यानम्
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|संशयः
|-
|24
|<nowiki>पूर्वपक्षः</nowiki>
|संशयः
|संशयः
|अतिव्याख्यानम्
|-
|25
|<nowiki>उत्तरपक्षः</nowiki>
|अतीतावेक्षा
|व्याख्यानम्
|अनुमतम्
|-
|26
|<nowiki>एकान्तः</nowiki>
|अनागतावेक्षा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|स्वसंज्ञा
|-
|27
|<nowiki>अनागतावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|स्वसंज्ञा
|निर्वचनम्
|निर्वचनम्
|-
|28
|<nowiki>अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्</nowiki>
|ऊह्यम्
|निदर्शनम्
|दृष्टान्तः
|-
|29
|<nowiki>नियोगः</nowiki>
|समुच्चयः
|नियोगः
|नियोगः
|-
|30
|<nowiki>विकल्पः</nowiki>
|निदर्शनम्
|विकल्पः
|विकल्पः
|-
|31
|<nowiki>समुच्चयः</nowiki>
|निर्वचनम्
|समुच्चयः
|समुच्चयः
|-
|32
|<nowiki>ऊह्यम्</nowiki>
|संनियोगः
|ऊह्यम्
|ऊह्यम्
|-
|33
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|विकल्पनम्
| -
| -
|-
|34
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|प्रत्युत्सारः
| -
| -
|-
|35
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|उद्धारः
| -
| -
|-
|36
|<nowiki> - </nowiki>
|सम्भवः
| -
| -
|}

=== Tantrayukti in Literature ===
All Bharatiya shastras, have been composed based on the tantrayukti system. One can see the application of Tantrayuktis in the composition of scientific literature such as Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana, Arthashastra, Ayurveda, Alankarashastra and Kamashastra. Such a study of methodological application is relevant to modern day studies, experiments and sciences. Here a few applications of tantrayuktis in ancient shastras is described.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" />
# Charaka Samhita (Ayurveda) is the first recorded evidence where Tantrayukti is dealt with. A seminal work on Ayurveda, it comprises of eight Sthanas containing 9295 sutras, of which the eighth sthana called as siddhisthana, has enumerated about 36 tantrayuktis as given in the table given above.
# Sushruta Samhita (Surgical Medicine), a renowned text on Sastrachikitsa (Surgery) composed by Sushruta, has about six sthanas with 8300 sutras in total. Thirtytwo tantrayuktis are detailed in the sixtyfifth adhyaya by Sushruta.
# Ashtangasangraha (Ayurveda) written by Vagbhata (a second text called Ashtangahrdaya) mentions 36 tantrayuktis in the 50th adhyaya if the Uttarasthana. Ashtangahrdaya also mentions Tantrayuktis.
# Vishnudarmottara Purana, enumerates 32 tantrayuktis in the sixth adhyaya of the third kanda.
# Kautilya's Arthashastra (Governance), an oldest available Tantrayukti-s list of 32 devices is from Arthashastra. Kautilya's Arthashastra, an ancient authoritative work on governance, diplomacy, economy, politics and statecraft, defines and illustrates Tantrayuktis in the fifteenth अधिकरणम् (Adhikarana).
# Tantrayuktivichara by Nilamegha (Ayurveda Practitioner from Kerala), a later day text considers 36 tantrayuktis in detail, based on Vagbhata's exposition.
# Nyayasutra bhashyam, by Vatsayana, also mentions about a tantrayukti called Anumata, while discussing the fourth sutra of the first ahnika in the first chapter of Gautama's Nyayasutras.<ref name=":2" />

=== Role of Tantrayuktis ===
Charaka aptly summarizes the role of tantrayuktis as follows<blockquote>यथाऽम्बुजवनस्यार्कः प्रदीपो वेश्मनो यथा ॥ 46</blockquote><blockquote>प्रबोध (न) प्रकाशार्थास्तथा तन्त्रस्य युक्तयः । एकस्मिन्नपि यस्येह शास्त्रे लब्दास्पदा मतिः॥ 47</blockquote><blockquote>स शास्त्रमन्यदप्याशु युक्तिज्ञत्वात् प्रबुध्यते । </blockquote>Meaning : Just as the sun causes a bed of lotuses to blossom, just a a lamp lights up a house, so also the tantrayuktis shed light on the meanings of the scientific subjects. He who gains a thorough knowledge of a shastra along with these tantrayuktis can quickly gain knowledge of another discipline too because of युक्तिज्ञत्वम् । knowledge of yuktis.

Chakrapanidatta further refines Charaka's views by adding that along with bringing out the full exposition of the scientific topic, tantrayuktis also throw light on the hidden meaning of the content. By learning these, a medical practitioner not only saves himself from injudicious handling but also saves the life of the patient.

Sushruta, clearly states that the purpose of tantrayuktis is two-fold namely, the arrangement of the sentences and the organization of the meanings.<ref name=":0" />

== Tantrayukti Illustrations ==
Almost all aspects required for writing a systematic and compact treatise are discussed by yuktis. A few illustrations presented by Dr. Jayaraman, in his paper<ref name=":2" /> are given here.

=== Basic Structure of a Treatise ===
Tantrayuktis such as the following aid the author to format a template, into which the content or the subject matter of choice could be constructed. It forms the foundation on which all aspects of the treatise will stand.
* प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana - defines the main objective, object or aim of the treatise
* अधिकरणम् ॥ Adhikarana - gives the topic or topics
* विधानम् ॥ Vidhana - defines the arrangement of the topics
* उद्देशः ॥ Uddesha, निर्देशः ॥Nirdesha - general pattern of enumeration
For example, Vidhanam, a yukti is used in Arthashastra. It is defined by Kautilya as शास्त्रस्य प्रकरणानुपूर्वी विधानम् to mean 'Treatment of topics in their inherent order'.<ref name=":0" /> Kautilya applies this yukti in his own text, Arthashastra, where प्रकरणाधिकरणसमुद्देशः lists the sections of the work. The subtopics start with विद्यासमुद्देशः (Chapter about Knowledge) वृद्धसंयोगः (Chapter about company of learned elders), इन्द्रियजयः (Chapter about conquering senses), अमात्योत्पत्तिः (Chapter about recruiting ministers) are placed in their natural sequence.

Panini's Ashtadhyayi is another exemplary illustration of this yukti, for it is the masterpiece of most orderly writing. Ancient poeticians (Bhamaha, Vamana, Dandi, Rajashekhara, Hemachandra to name a few) have used this yukti expertly in their works.

In the modern days, this yukti is similar to the outline or table of contents, an arrangement which facilitates the conception of all major and minor topics of a scientific work, their interpretation and enumeration.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Finalized List of Tantrayuktis
!S. No
!Tantrayukti
!Synonyms
!One Definition
!Nomenclature & Explanation
!Illustration
|-
|1
|अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम्
|अतीतावेक्षा
|यत्पूर्वमुक्तं तदतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् । (Sushruta Samhita)
|Restrospection, to say that it has been previously stated
|Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka mentions: प्रतीयमानो ह्यर्थभेदः प्राक् प्रदर्शितः। The differences of Pratiyamana artha have been previously shown.
|-
|2
|अतिदेशः
|NA
|अन्यसम्बन्धिनां धर्माणामन्यत्रव्यवस्थापनमतिदेशः। (Tantrayukti Vichara)
|Extended Application, connecting or extending the properties of one to another interrelated topic.
|
|-
|3
|अधिकरणम्
|NA
|अधिकरणं नाम यमर्थमधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते कर्ता । (Charaka Samhita)
|Subject or topic of discussion, subject matter of the scientific work, a topic of the chapter, section, sentence etc.
|Vamana's work is titled 'काव्यालङ्कारसूत्राणि', it at once suggests that काव्यालङ्कार or The Beauty of Poetry' which is the adhikarana of Vamana's whole work.
|-
|4
|अनागतावेक्षणम्
|
|
|
|
|}

== References ==

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-14T14:57:28Z

Sumit: /* Basic Structure of a Treatise */ adding content

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-14T14:41:43Z

Sumit: adding content

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-14T05:49:45Z

Sumit: /* Role of Tantrayuktis */

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-14T05:28:38Z

Sumit: content

Shastra Shikshana Paddhati (शास्त्रशिक्षणपद्धतिः)

2018-10-04T06:22:58Z

Sumit: adding content

Shastra shikshana paddhati (Samskrit : शास्त्रशिक्षणपद्धतिः) means the teaching methodology of shastras. Ancient poetic and scientific treatises are classified on the basis of their purpose, readership, the volume of the subject matter apart from many other things. To facilitate teaching, memorization and brevity of content, shastras have been composed in a certain format for easy understanding.
#Sutras (सुत्रम्)
#Bhashya (भाष्यम्)
#Vrtti (वृत्तिः)
#Vartika (वार्तिकम्)
#Vyakhyana (व्याख्यानम्) or Tika (टीका)
#Tippani (टिप्पणी)
====Sutras====
A '''[[sutra]]''' (''sūtra'' {{lang|sa|[[wikt:सूत्र|सूत्र]]}}) is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread".<ref name="monierwilliamssutra22">Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html ''sutra''], page 1241</ref> Each ''sutra'' is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra22" /><ref name="winternitz24922">M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 249</ref>

Sanatana Dharma has six systems or six different schools of thought called the [[Shad Darshanas|Shad Darsanas]]. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e., the one great Rishi who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras. The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. There are glosses, notes and, later, commentaries on the original commentaries.<ref name=":622">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-50</ref>

Apart from philosophy, various fields of arts, law and social ethics developed respective ''sutras'', which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next. Each set of '''Sutras''' has got its [[Bhashya]], ''Vritti, Vaartika, Vyakhyana or Tika and Tippani''.<ref name=":622" />

A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.<ref name=":622" />

The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times. The six Vedangas and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the world.<ref name=":622" />

In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras.<ref name=":622" />
====Bhashya<ref name=":622" />====
'''सूत्रार्थो वर्ण्यते यत्र, पदै: सुत्रानुसारिभिः।'''

'''स्वपदानि च वर्ण्यन्ते, भाष्यं भाष्यविदो विदु: ॥'''

A [[Bhashya]] (Sanskrit: भाष्य) is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref>

The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya is so important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of Bhashyakaras. The next important Bhashya is the one on the Mimamsa Sutras written by Sabara-Swamin who learnt the art from Patanjali's commentary. The third important Bhashya was written by Sankara on the Brahma Sutras, in close following with Sabara-Bhashya. The Bhashyas on the six sets of aphorisms dealing with Indian philosophy were written by Vatsyayana, Prasastapada, Vijnanabhikshu, Vyasa, Sabara and Sankara. On the Vedanta or Brahma sutra there are about sixteen Bhashyas, like those of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka, etc.<ref name=":022" />
====Vritti<ref name=":622" />====
A Vritti is a short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as extensively as a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana's Vritti on the Brahma Sutras.
====Varttika<ref name=":622" />====
A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and also of that which is left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya. It also includes ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini's Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara's Upanishad-Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa.
====Vyakhyana or Tika<ref name=":622" />====
A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra. An Anu-Vyakhyana—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. Tika is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara's Brahmasutra-Bhashya.
====Tippani<ref name=":722">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 51-53</ref>====
Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are Kaiyata's gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta's gloss on Kaiyata's gloss, or Appayya's gloss on Amalananda's gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra.
==References==
<references />

Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)

2018-10-03T17:41:42Z

Sumit: /* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ Tatchilya */ added content and references

Shastra rachanapaddhati (Samskrit : शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः) means the methodology of construction of scientific and theoretical texts such as shastras and poetics. Samskrit literature abounds with thousands of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than half a dozen books provide us the detailed information outlining the devices or means for composition of a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra. Every Bharatiya shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using these principles of methodology, of which the teachers, students, and the critics who expounded theoretical works on those subjects, were required to be familiar with.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,
*Vishnudharmottara Purana, contains discussions on sundry topics like poetics, arts, sculpture
*Panini Maharshi's Ashtadhyayi, a world famous grammar treatise
*Kautilya's Arthashastra, a work on polity and statecraft
*Charaka Samhita, greatest extant work on Ayurveda
*Sushruta Samhita, a renowned work on surgery
*Vagbhata's Ashtangasangraha and Ashtangahrdayam, books on Ayurveda
*Nilamegha's Tantrayuktivichara, a medical treatise
Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, Indu were authors of commentaries which have methodology of importance.

== Methodology of Ancient Shastras ==
Earliest instances of methodical composition of knowledge base can be seen in the Anukramanikas. They are associated with Vedic texts and are the scientific indices on the vedic mantras. Each Veda contains atleast one such index. Because of Anukramanikas the texts have been preserved and tradition continued. These indices are very systematic recording the exact number of mantras, even aksharas, such that no scope for interpolation or deletion was allowed preserving the text accurately.

Nyaya Shastra which is the primary source of logic for all other shastras, explains five requisite methodologies as follows:<ref>Dash, Kesab Chandra. (1992) ''Elements of Research Methodology in Sanskrit.'' Varanasi : Chaukamba Sanskrit Sansthan</ref>
# प्रतिज्ञा । Pratijna is the hypothesis that needs to be evaluated
# हेतुः । Hetuhu is the proposed reasoning of the problem
# उदाहरणम् । Udaharana include the examples, illustrations or data in support of the hypothesis
# उपनयः । Upanaya includes verification and devices to establish the correlation
# निगमनम् । Nigamana draws the conclusion
All the shastras and poetic works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. As such these concepts can be understood by illustrations from poetics also. The lesser known fact is that these great Indian thinkers after a thorough research, in-depth comprehensive study of the shastras available to them, formulated a methodology for building scientific theories having 95 constituents, under five headings.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan</ref><ref name=":1" />
#तन्त्रयुक्तयः (tantrayuktayaḥ) ॥ Tantrayuktis (36)
#व्याख्यानि (vyākhyāni) ॥ Vyakhyas (15)
#कल्पनाः (kalpanāḥ) ॥ Kalpanas (7)
#आश्रयानि (āśrayāni)॥ Ashrayas (20)
#ताच्छील्यानि (tācchīlyāni)॥ Taatchilyas (17)
A brief introduction of each of the five given elements of composition and presentation of shastras will be undertaken in this topic.
===तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥Tantrayukti===
[[Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)]], an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref> According to Kautilya's Arthashastra the following list of 32 Tantrayuktis are given<ref name=":2" />

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 800px; font-style: normal; color: #;|* अधिकरणम् ॥ adhikaraṇam (Topic)
* विधानम् ॥ vidhānam (Statement of Contents)
* योगः ॥ yogaḥ (Employment of sentences)
* पदार्थः ॥ padārthaḥ (Meaning of the word)
* हेत्वर्थः ॥ hetvarthaḥ (Reason)
* उद्धेशः ॥ uddheśaḥ (Mention)
* निर्देशः ॥ nirdeśaḥ (Explanation)
* उपदेशः ॥ upadeśaḥ (Advice)
* अपदेशः ॥ apadeśaḥ (Reference)
* अतिदेशः ॥ atideśaḥ (Application)
* प्रदेशः ॥ pradeśaḥ (Indication)
* उपमानम् ॥ upamānam (Analogy)
* अर्थापत्तिः ॥ arthāpattiḥ (Implication)
* संशयः ॥ saṁśayaḥ (Doubt)
* प्रसङ्गः ॥ prasaṅgaḥ (Situation)
* विपर्ययः ॥ viparyayaḥ (Contrary)
* वाक्यशेषः ॥ vākyaśeṣaḥ (Completion of a sentence)
* अनुमतम् ॥ anumatam (Agreement)
* व्याख्यानम् ॥ vyākhyānam (Emphasis)
* निर्वचनम् ॥ nirvacanam (Derivation)
* निदर्शनम् ॥ nidarśanam (Illustration)
* अपवर्गः ॥ apavargaḥ (Exception)
* स्वसंज्ञा ॥ svasaṁjñā (Technical term)
* पूर्वपक्षः ॥ pūrvapakṣaḥ (prima facie view)
* उत्तरपक्षः ॥ uttarapakṣaḥ (Correct view)
* एकान्तः ॥ ekāntaḥ (Invariable rule)
* अनागतावेक्षणम् ॥ anāgatāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a future statement)
* अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् ॥ atikrāntāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a past statement)
* नियोगः ॥ niyogaḥ (Restriction)
* विकल्पः ॥ vikalpaḥ (Option)
* समुच्चयः ॥ samuccayaḥ (Combination)
* ऊह्यम् ॥ ūhyam (What is understood)}}Again a word of wide import, Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of Veda, education, aphorism, knowledge, shastra and definition. Tantra is referred as a synonym for Shastra in the present context means a 'theory' is which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Thus it means a device or a method to systematically compose a text (or a shastra) to convey the intended ideas clearly.<ref name=":2" />

While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis.

=== व्याख्या ॥ Vyakhya ===
Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा ।</blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ piṇḍavyakhyā
* पदव्यख्या ॥ padavyakhyā
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ padārthavyakhyā
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ adhikaraṇavyakhyā
* प्रकरणव्यख्या ॥ prakaraṇavyakhyā
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ arthavyakhyā
* कृच्छ्रव्यख्या ॥ kr̥cchravyakhyā
* फलव्यख्या ॥ phalavyakhyā
* उच्चितकव्यख्या ॥ uccitakavyakhyā
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ nyāsavyakhyā
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ prayojanavyakhyā
* अनुलोमव्यख्या ॥ anulomavyakhyā
* प्रतिलोमव्यख्या ॥ pratilomavyakhyā
* अतिसूत्रव्यख्या ॥ atisūtravyakhyā
* समस्तव्यख्या ॥ samastavyakhyā }}Some Vyakhyas have similar meanings as in tantrayuktis, while some are different devices. A few examples are as follows:<ref name=":0" />
# '''पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ Pinda Vyakhya''' is defined as सङ्क्षेपतया सूत्ररूपेणाध्यायादीनां व्यख्या। Pinda vyakhya is a text containing a brief and synoptic explanation of the chapters, divisions in the form of a sutra.
# '''अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ Adhikarana Vyakhya''' is defined as यद्वस्तुकृतमारभ्य तदनुषङ्गेण व्यख्यानमारभ्यते । Adhikara vyakhya is defined as a detailed explanation with all-inclusive definitions, illustrations of the topic or subject undertaken.
# '''अर्थव्यख्या ॥ Artha Vyakhya''' is defined as यत्र प्रकरणेसूत्रे वा स्वभावस्योपवर्णनं क्रियते । तद्यथा प्रकृतिरुच्यते स्वभावः। Artha vyakhya is that text part which contains the description of the natural state of the subject in context, in detail. It is elaborate detail oriented, subtle or vivid description of the innate property of an item in context.
# '''न्यासव्यख्या ॥ Nyasa Vyakhya''' is defined as यस्मिन्नधिकारे वर्तमाने तेनाधिकरणार्थेन सहितं सम्बन्धमभिवीक्ष्यान्यस्यार्थो विनिक्षिप्यते। Nyasa vyakhya is defined as that text where " a doubt /question is raised initially about a shastra definition or a sutra meaning which is resolved later and to simultaneously discuss another meaning related to the sutra or shastra"
# '''पदव्यख्या ॥ Pada Vyakhya''' is defined as यत्पदाना छदें कृत्वोच्चारणम्। Pada vyakhya is that text matter which contains grammatically split words contained in the sutra or karika by breaking up the sandhis, samasas and with etymological explanation. Padavyakhya consists of 3 processes Sandhi viccheda, Samasavigraha and Vyutpattikathana which helps the reader to understand words of the text.
# '''पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ Padartha Vyakhya''' is defined as तेषामेव पदानां विवरणम् । Padartha vyakhya contains the explanation of the words split in the Pada vyakhya. It helps the reader understand the meaning of each and every word of the text.
# '''प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ Prayojana Vyakhya''' is defined as यत्सूत्रमभिधीयमानम स्वार्थस्य निष्पत्तौ निमित्तभावमुपैति। Prayojana vyakhya defines the purpose of using some words of the sutra, logic or concept indicated in the shastra or sutra. It is one of the important devices which imparts the core concept of the sutra or shastra to the reader.
Thus we see that Vyakhyas are devices to promote a clearer and better understanding of the words used in the scientific or poetic works. They have an important function of throwing light on the main scientific concepts and doctrines.

=== कल्पना ॥ Kalpana ===
Kalpana (कल्पना) means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना ।</blockquote>
* प्रधानकल्पना ॥ pradhānakalpanā - is of two kinds प्रधानस्य कल्पना and प्रधानेन कल्पना
* गुणकल्पना ॥ guṇakalpanā
* भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā
* लेशकल्पना ॥ leśakalpanā
* विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā
* आज्ञाकल्पना ॥ ājñākalpanā
A few examples of Kalpana are given as below.
# '''प्रधानेन कल्पना ॥ pradhānēna kalpanā''' is defined as प्रधानेन तु कल्पना यथा - क्षीरदधितक्र... सर्वः क्षीरवर्ग इत्युक्तः क्षीरप्राधान्यात् । Pradhana Kalpana is a method which is used to name a group of substances after one of them which predominantly possesses the common property. For example, there is a predominance of milk in milk, curds, buttermilk, butter, ghee etc, all these things are said to belong to the milk-group. This device follows the Nyaya ' प्रधानेन व्यपदेशा भवन्ति ' which the ancient thinkers commonly followed and is an important Kalpana.
# '''भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā''' is defined as भक्ष्यकल्पना नाम - एतत्तदमृतं साक्षात् इत्यादि । Bhakshya Kalpana is used in the sense of utility or adoption especially important in Ayurvedic aspect. This mode of composition refers to the edible and drinkable substances to explain a scientific concept. The science of medicine is compared to अमृतम्
# '''विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā''' is defined as विद्याकल्पना नाम, - यथा सर्वविद्यानुगतार्थनिर्देशे शास्त्रकारस्य सर्वविद्यास्थानानुप्रवेश इह शास्त्रे हित इति वचनाद्विनाऽपीष्यते । Vidya Kalpana is a composition that presents an assessment of the interdisciplinary study or scholarship of the author, and gives the reader an idea about the author's familiarity with other branches of knowledge. For example, Kshemendra advises that aspiring writers should familiarize themselves with the list of branches of knowledge that he lists.

=== आश्रयम् ॥ Ashraya ===
An ashraya (आश्रयम् ) is a prop, a supporting text or concept used to arrive at the correct meaning of the subject matter. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* आदिलोपः ॥ ādilopaḥ
* मध्यलोपः ॥ madhyalopaḥ
* अन्तलोपः ॥ antalopaḥ
* उभयपदलोपः ॥ ubhayapadalopaḥ
* आदिमध्यान्तलोपः ॥ ādimadhyāntalopaḥ
* वर्णोपजननम् ॥ varṇopajananam
* ऋषिक्लिष्टम् ॥ r̥ṣikliṣṭam
* तन्त्रशीलम् ॥ tantraśīlam
* तन्त्रसंज्ञा ॥ tantrasaṁjñā
* प्राकृतम् ॥ prākr̥tam
* समानतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ samānatantrapratyayaḥ
* परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ
* हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ
* कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ
* आद्यन्तविपर्ययः ॥ ādyantaviparyayaḥ
* शब्दान्तरम् ॥ śabdāntaram
* प्रत्ययः ॥ pratyayaḥ
* उपनयः ॥ upanayaḥ
* सम्भवः ॥ sambhavaḥ
* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}The following are a few examples of Ashraya type of compositions.
# '''परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ''' is defined as परतन्त्रप्रत्ययो नाम, - यस्यार्थस्य प्रसिद्धितो न स्वकीयमुदाहरणं शक्यमभिधातुं नाप्यन्येभ्यो भिषक्तन्त्रेभ्यः । ततस्तस्मिन्द्वये परतन्त्रादुदाहरणं कल्प्यते । When a shastra concept is such that it cannot be explained clearly with the help of one's treatise, or another author's treatise belonging to the same branch of learning, then the explanation is attempted using the concepts presented in a different discipline. Poetics are abundant with examples of such type of compositions.
# '''हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ''' is defined as यो हेतुहेतुकधर्मो नाम, - यो हेतुहेतुकेन धर्मो ज्ञायते । Hetu means a major or potential cause; Hetuka means a minor or incidental cause. To make an inference of the dharma or the common property after reading or hearing both the Hetu and hetuka is called the Hetuhetukadharma Ashraya. It is to be kept in mind that Hetu unfailingly brings about the effect. This concept support system helps the reader draw a line of demarcation between the major and minor causes of an effect and thus finds place as an important consideration in building the methodology of a text.
# '''कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ''' is defined as कार्यकारणधर्मो नाम, - यत्र कार्यसंज्ञया कारणं निर्दिश्यते कारणसंज्ञया वा कार्यं, तत्र कार्यसंज्ञया तावत्कारणं निर्दिश्यते । To speak of an effect as a cause and a cause as an effect in a secondary sense is called Karyakarana Dharma. Kshemendra affirms that औचित्यम् । Auchitya, propriety, is the property or cause that brings poetry to life (effect). वक्रोक्तिः । Vakrokti, an elegant turn of expression, is a means to achieve poetic beauty. There is a cause and effect relationship between the Vakrokti (वक्रोक्तिः) and Charuta (चारुता). Alamkara shastra abounds with many such examples.

=== ताच्छील्यम् ॥ Tatchilya ===
Tatchilya is an informal use of a word in a scientific or poetic composition. In common language, people normally use words with extending, stretching or even twisted meanings, implying them to describe other situations, actions than they were originally meant for. This is the metaphorical process and in essence means transfer of meaning of a word to an entirely different context or situation. For example : we say 'In the eyes of law she was guilty and punished', here we mean in the 'view of law', since law, an inanimate thing cannot have eyes, and its action of viewing is extended to law. But such usages are very common and many times are used to enhance poetic beauty.

This 'extension of meaning to something else' or 'a secondary use of language' is called Tatchilya. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas<blockquote>सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam
* अवयवः ॥ avayavaḥ
* विकारः॥ vikāraḥ
* सामीप्यम्॥ sāmīpyam
* भूयस्त्वम्॥ bhūyastvam
* प्रकारः॥ prakāraḥ
* गुणिगुणविभवः ॥ guṇiguṇavibhavaḥ
* संसक्ता ॥ saṁsaktā
* तद्धर्मता ॥ taddharmatā
* स्थानम् ॥ sthānam
* तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam
* साहचर्यम् ॥ sāhacaryam
* कर्म ॥ karma
* गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā
* चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā
* मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā
* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}A few examples of Tatchilya type of compositions are given below
# '''गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā''' is defined as गुणनिमित्तं नाम, - यत्कस्य विभूतिः प्रशंसादिका ख्यार्यते। To name something after a praiseworthy quality in it. For example, observance of celibacy helps one achieve righteousness, fame, long life and utmost purity. Considering this if one calls Brahmacharya itself as धर्म्य, यशस्य, आयुष्य, etc one will be said to be using गुणनिमित्तता
# '''चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā''' is defined as चेष्टानिमित्तं नाम, - यस्मिन्नाममात्रं कस्यचित् क्रयया भवति भावस्य। नात्र प्रस्पन्दक्रियेष्टा । यथा दीपवदस्य ज्ञानं ज्वलति इत्युच्यते । When two things having some common characteristic are compared in order to praise one of the things, such a usage of words in a secondary sense is called चेष्टानिमित्तता। For example, when someone says " as knowledge shines like a lamp", it is well known that knowledge does not burn, does not have flames or not hot to touch. Yet the comparison is made taking into account one characteristic that is common both to lamp and knowledge which is prakashana the action of light.
# '''तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam''' is defined as तादर्थ्यं नाम, - यत्प्रयोजनार्थं प्रवर्तते भवस्तेनैव व्यपदिश्यते । यथा मदनमधुकलम्बा इत्यादीनि छर्दनानि, छर्दनप्रयोजनानीत्यर्थः। To name an object after the purpose for which it is used is called तादर्थ्यम् । For instance, a मदनफल is used for vomiting (छर्दन) so it is itself called छर्दन।
# '''मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā''' is defined as या लोकेऽन्यस्मिन्नर्थे प्रसिद्धा तन्त्रे चान्यस्मिन् (अर्थे) निवेशिता । A word used in everyday life is used in one sense while it is used in another sense for technical term in scientific treatise. For instance, we use the word रूप in daily life to mean colour - white, red etc, but in आयुर्वेद it means a symptom.

== Methodology of Modern Scientific Treatises ==
Modern technological advancements are bringing in various investigative procedures for verification of processes through experimental procedures. Standards and control checks are in place to ensure test results and reproducibility of any experiment is of great importance. Following a strict protocols adhering to standard operating procedures in any industry has led to widespread standardization of products obtained. Reason is no longer sufficient and gone are the days of trial and error experimentation, every aspect of science now sustains on verifiability and experimental testing of knowledge.<ref name=":1" /> Modern Methodological Devices include
* Research Problem
* Literature Review
* Hypothesis
* Research Design
* Data Collection
* Data Analysis
* Presentation of Results
* Conclusions

==References==
<references />

Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)

2018-10-03T17:06:43Z

Sumit: /* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ Tatchilya */

Shastra rachanapaddhati (Samskrit : शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः) means the methodology of construction of scientific and theoretical texts such as shastras and poetics. Samskrit literature abounds with thousands of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than half a dozen books provide us the detailed information outlining the devices or means for composition of a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra. Every Bharatiya shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using these principles of methodology, of which the teachers, students, and the critics who expounded theoretical works on those subjects, were required to be familiar with.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,
*Vishnudharmottara Purana, contains discussions on sundry topics like poetics, arts, sculpture
*Panini Maharshi's Ashtadhyayi, a world famous grammar treatise
*Kautilya's Arthashastra, a work on polity and statecraft
*Charaka Samhita, greatest extant work on Ayurveda
*Sushruta Samhita, a renowned work on surgery
*Vagbhata's Ashtangasangraha and Ashtangahrdayam, books on Ayurveda
*Nilamegha's Tantrayuktivichara, a medical treatise
Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, Indu were authors of commentaries which have methodology of importance.

== Methodology of Ancient Shastras ==
Earliest instances of methodical composition of knowledge base can be seen in the Anukramanikas. They are associated with Vedic texts and are the scientific indices on the vedic mantras. Each Veda contains atleast one such index. Because of Anukramanikas the texts have been preserved and tradition continued. These indices are very systematic recording the exact number of mantras, even aksharas, such that no scope for interpolation or deletion was allowed preserving the text accurately.

Nyaya Shastra which is the primary source of logic for all other shastras, explains five requisite methodologies as follows:<ref>Dash, Kesab Chandra. (1992) ''Elements of Research Methodology in Sanskrit.'' Varanasi : Chaukamba Sanskrit Sansthan</ref>
# प्रतिज्ञा । Pratijna is the hypothesis that needs to be evaluated
# हेतुः । Hetuhu is the proposed reasoning of the problem
# उदाहरणम् । Udaharana include the examples, illustrations or data in support of the hypothesis
# उपनयः । Upanaya includes verification and devices to establish the correlation
# निगमनम् । Nigamana draws the conclusion
All the shastras and poetic works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. As such these concepts can be understood by illustrations from poetics also. The lesser known fact is that these great Indian thinkers after a thorough research, in-depth comprehensive study of the shastras available to them, formulated a methodology for building scientific theories having 95 constituents, under five headings.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan</ref><ref name=":1" />
#तन्त्रयुक्तयः (tantrayuktayaḥ) ॥ Tantrayuktis (36)
#व्याख्यानि (vyākhyāni) ॥ Vyakhyas (15)
#कल्पनाः (kalpanāḥ) ॥ Kalpanas (7)
#आश्रयानि (āśrayāni)॥ Ashrayas (20)
#ताच्छील्यानि (tācchīlyāni)॥ Taatchilyas (17)
A brief introduction of each of the five given elements of composition and presentation of shastras will be undertaken in this topic.
===तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥Tantrayukti===
[[Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)]], an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref> According to Kautilya's Arthashastra the following list of 32 Tantrayuktis are given<ref name=":2" />

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 700px; font-style: normal; color: #;|* अधिकरणम् ॥ adhikaraṇam (Topic)
* विधानम् ॥ vidhānam (Statement of Contents)
* योगः ॥ yogaḥ (Employment of sentences)
* पदार्थः ॥ padārthaḥ (Meaning of the word)
* हेत्वर्थः ॥ hetvarthaḥ (Reason)
* उद्धेशः ॥ uddheśaḥ (Mention)
* निर्देशः ॥ nirdeśaḥ (Explanation)
* उपदेशः ॥ upadeśaḥ (Advice)
* अपदेशः ॥ apadeśaḥ (Reference)
* अतिदेशः ॥ atideśaḥ (Application)
* प्रदेशः ॥ pradeśaḥ (Indication)
* उपमानम् ॥ upamānam (Analogy)
* अर्थापत्तिः ॥ arthāpattiḥ (Implication)
* संशयः ॥ saṁśayaḥ (Doubt)
* प्रसङ्गः ॥ prasaṅgaḥ (Situation)
* विपर्ययः ॥ viparyayaḥ (Contrary)
* वाक्यशेषः ॥ vākyaśeṣaḥ (Completion of a sentence)
* अनुमतम् ॥ anumatam (Agreement)
* व्याख्यानम् ॥ vyākhyānam (Emphasis)
* निर्वचनम् ॥ nirvacanam (Derivation)
* निदर्शनम् ॥ nidarśanam (Illustration)
* अपवर्गः ॥ apavargaḥ (Exception)
* स्वसंज्ञा ॥ svasaṁjñā (Technical term)
* पूर्वपक्षः ॥ pūrvapakṣaḥ (prima facie view)
* उत्तरपक्षः ॥ uttarapakṣaḥ (Correct view)
* एकान्तः ॥ ekāntaḥ (Invariable rule)
* अनागतावेक्षणम् ॥ anāgatāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a future statement)
* अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् ॥ atikrāntāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a past statement)
* नियोगः ॥ niyogaḥ (Restriction)
* विकल्पः ॥ vikalpaḥ (Option)
* समुच्चयः ॥ samuccayaḥ (Combination)
* ऊह्यम् ॥ ūhyam (What is understood)}}Again a word of wide import, Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of Veda, education, aphorism, knowledge, shastra and definition. Tantra is referred as a synonym for Shastra in the present context means a 'theory' is which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Thus it means a device or a method to systematically compose a text (or a shastra) to convey the intended ideas clearly.<ref name=":2" />

While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis.

=== व्याख्या ॥ Vyakhya ===
Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा ।</blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ piṇḍavyakhyā
* पदव्यख्या ॥ padavyakhyā
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ padārthavyakhyā
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ adhikaraṇavyakhyā
* प्रकरणव्यख्या ॥ prakaraṇavyakhyā
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ arthavyakhyā
* कृच्छ्रव्यख्या ॥ kr̥cchravyakhyā
* फलव्यख्या ॥ phalavyakhyā
* उच्चितकव्यख्या ॥ uccitakavyakhyā
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ nyāsavyakhyā
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ prayojanavyakhyā
* अनुलोमव्यख्या ॥ anulomavyakhyā
* प्रतिलोमव्यख्या ॥ pratilomavyakhyā
* अतिसूत्रव्यख्या ॥ atisūtravyakhyā
* समस्तव्यख्या ॥ samastavyakhyā }}Some Vyakhyas have similar meanings as in tantrayuktis, while some are different devices. A few examples are as follows:<ref name=":0" />
* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ Pinda Vyakhya is defined as सङ्क्षेपतया सूत्ररूपेणाध्यायादीनां व्यख्या।
Pinda vyakhya is a text containing a brief and synoptic explanation of the chapters, divisions in the form of a sutra.
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ Adhikarana Vyakhya is defined as यद्वस्तुकृतमारभ्य तदनुषङ्गेण व्यख्यानमारभ्यते ।
Adhikara vyakhya is defined as a detailed explanation with all-inclusive definitions, illustrations of the topic or subject undertaken.
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ Artha Vyakhya is defined as यत्र प्रकरणेसूत्रे वा स्वभावस्योपवर्णनं क्रियते । तद्यथा प्रकृतिरुच्यते स्वभावः।
Artha vyakhya is that text part which contains the description of the natural state of the subject in context, in detail. It is elaborate detail oriented, subtle or vivid description of the innate property of an item in context.
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ Nyasa Vyakhya is defined as यस्मिन्नधिकारे वर्तमाने तेनाधिकरणार्थेन सहितं सम्बन्धमभिवीक्ष्यान्यस्यार्थो विनिक्षिप्यते।
Nyasa vyakhya is defined as that text where " a doubt /question is raised initially about a shastra definition or a sutra meaning which is resolved later and to simultaneously discuss another meaning related to the sutra or shastra"
* पदव्यख्या ॥ Pada Vyakhya is defined as यत्पदाना छदें कृत्वोच्चारणम्।
Pada vyakhya is that text matter which contains grammatically split words contained in the sutra or karika by breaking up the sandhis, samasas and with etymological explanation. Padavyakhya consists of 3 processes Sandhi viccheda, Samasavigraha and Vyutpattikathana which helps the reader to understand words of the text.
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ Padartha Vyakhya is defined as तेषामेव पदानां विवरणम् ।
Padartha vyakhya contains the explanation of the words split in the Pada vyakhya. It helps the reader understand the meaning of each and every word of the text.
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ Prayojana Vyakhya is defined as यत्सूत्रमभिधीयमानम स्वार्थस्य निष्पत्तौ निमित्तभावमुपैति।
Prayojana vyakhya defines the purpose of using some words of the sutra, logic or concept indicated in the shastra or sutra. It is one of the important devices which imparts the core concept of the sutra or shastra to the reader.

Thus we see that Vyakhyas are devices to promote a clearer and better understanding of the words used in the scientific or poetic works. They have an important function of throwing light on the main scientific concepts and doctrines.

=== कल्पना ॥ Kalpana ===
Kalpana (कल्पना) means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना ।</blockquote>
* प्रधानकल्पना ॥ pradhānakalpanā - is of two kinds प्रधानस्य कल्पना and प्रधानेन कल्पना
* गुणकल्पना ॥ guṇakalpanā
* भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā
* लेशकल्पना ॥ leśakalpanā
* विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā
* आज्ञाकल्पना ॥ ājñākalpanā
प्रधानेन कल्पना ॥ pradhānēna kalpanā प्रधानेन तु कल्पना यथा - क्षीरदधितक्र... सर्वः क्षीरवर्ग इत्युक्तः क्षीरप्राधान्यात् ।

Pradhana Kalpana is a method which is used to name a group of substances after one of them which predominantly possesses the common property. For example, there is a predominance of milk in milk, curds, buttermilk, butter, ghee etc, all these things are said to belong to the milk-group. This device follows the Nyaya ' प्रधानेन व्यपदेशा भवन्ति ' which the ancient thinkers commonly followed and is an important Kalpana.

भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā भक्ष्यकल्पना नाम - एतत्तदमृतं साक्षात् इत्यादि ।

Bhakshya Kalpana is used in the sense of utility or adoption especially important in Ayurvedic aspect. This mode of composition refers to the edible and drinkable substances to explain a scientific concept. The science of medicine is compared to अमृतम्

विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā

Vidya Kalpana is a composition that presents an assessment of the interdisciplinary study or scholarship of the author, and gives the reader an idea about the author's familiarity with other branches of knowledge. For example, Kshemendra advises that aspiring writers should familiarize themselves with the list of branches of knowledge that he lists.

=== आश्रयम् ॥ Ashraya ===
An ashraya (आश्रयम् ) is a prop, a supporting text or concept used to arrive at the correct meaning of the subject matter. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* आदिलोपः ॥ ādilopaḥ
* मध्यलोपः ॥ madhyalopaḥ
* अन्तलोपः ॥ antalopaḥ
* उभयपदलोपः ॥ ubhayapadalopaḥ
* आदिमध्यान्तलोपः ॥ ādimadhyāntalopaḥ
* वर्णोपजननम् ॥ varṇopajananam
* ऋषिक्लिष्टम् ॥ r̥ṣikliṣṭam
* तन्त्रशीलम् ॥ tantraśīlam
* तन्त्रसंज्ञा ॥ tantrasaṁjñā
* प्राकृतम् ॥ prākr̥tam
* समानतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ samānatantrapratyayaḥ
* परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ
* हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ
* कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ
* आद्यन्तविपर्ययः ॥ ādyantaviparyayaḥ
* शब्दान्तरम् ॥ śabdāntaram
* प्रत्ययः ॥ pratyayaḥ
* उपनयः ॥ upanayaḥ
* सम्भवः ॥ sambhavaḥ
* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ

When a shastra concept is such that it cannot be explained clearly with the help of one's treatise, or another author's treatise belonging to the same branch of learning, then the explanation is attempted using the concepts presented in a different discipline. Poetics are abundant with examples of such type of compositions.

हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ

Hetu means a major or potential cause; Hetuka means a minor or incidental cause. To make an inference of the dharma or the common property after reading or hearing both the Hetu and hetuka is called the Hetuhetukadharma Ashraya. It is to be kept in mind that Hetu unfailingly brings about the effect. This concept support system helps the reader draw a line of demarcation between the major and minor causes of an effect and thus finds place as an important consideration in building the methodology of a text.

कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ

To speak of an effect as a cause and a cause as an effect in a secondary sense is called Karyakarana Dharma. Kshemendra affirms that Auchitya, propriety, is the property or cause that brings poetry to life (effect). Vakrokti, an elegant turn of expression, is a means to achieve poetic beauty. There is a cause and effect relationship between the Vakrokti and Charuta. Alamkara shastra abounds with many such examples.

=== ताच्छील्यम् ॥ Tatchilya ===
Tatchilya is an informal use of a word in a scientific or poetic composition. In common language, people normally use words with extending, stretching or even twisted meanings, implying them to describe other situations, actions than they were originally meant for. This is the metaphorical process and in essence means transfer of meaning of a word to an entirely different context or situation. For example : we say 'In the eyes of law she was guilty and punished', here we mean in the 'view of law', since law, an inanimate thing cannot have eyes, and its action of viewing is extended to law. But such usages are very common and many times are used to enhance poetic beauty.

This 'extension of meaning to something else' or 'a secondary use of language' is called Tatchilya. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas<blockquote>सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam
* अवयवः ॥ avayavaḥ
* विकारः॥ vikāraḥ
* सामीप्यम्॥ sāmīpyam
* भूयस्त्वम्॥ bhūyastvam
* प्रकारः॥ prakāraḥ
* गुणिगुणविभवः ॥ guṇiguṇavibhavaḥ
* संसक्ता ॥ saṁsaktā
* तद्धर्मता ॥ taddharmatā
* स्थानम् ॥ sthānam
* तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam
* साहचर्यम् ॥ sāhacaryam
* कर्म ॥ karma
* गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā
* चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā
* मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā
* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā is defined as गुणनिमित्तं नाम, - यत्कस्य विभूतिः प्रशंसादिका ख्यार्यते।

To name something after a praiseworthy quality in it. For example, observance of celibacy helps one achieve righteousness, fame, long life and utmost purity. Considering this if one calls Brahmacharya itself as धर्म्य, यशस्य, आयुष्य, etc one will be said to be using गुणनिमित्तता

चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā चेष्टानिमित्तं नाम, - यस्मिन्नाममात्रं कस्यचित् क्रयया भवति भावस्य। नात्र प्रस्पन्दक्रियेष्टा । यथा दीपवदस्य ज्ञानं ज्वलति इत्युच्यते ।

When two things having some common characteristic are compared in order to praise one of the things, such a usage of words in a secondary sense is called चेष्टानिमित्तता। For example, when someone says " as knowledge shines like a lamp", it is well known that knowledge does not burn, does not have flames or not hot to touch. Yet the comparison is made taking into account one characteristic that is common both to lamp and knowledge which is prakashana the action of light.

तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam तादर्थ्यं नाम, - यत्प्रयोजनार्थं प्रवर्तते भवस्तेनैव व्यपदिश्यते । यथा मदनमधुकलम्बा इत्यादीनि छर्दनानि, छर्दनप्रयोजनानीत्यर्थः।

To name an object after the purpose for which it is used is called तादर्थ्यम् । For instance, a मदनफल is used for vomiting (छर्दन) so it is itself called छर्दन।

मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā is defined as या लोकेऽन्यस्मिन्नर्थे प्रसिद्धा तन्त्रे चान्यस्मिन् (अर्थे) निवेशिता ।

A word used in everyday life is used in one sense while it is used in another sense for technical term in scientific treatise. For instance, we use the word रूप in daily life to mean colour - white, red etc, but in आयुर्वेद it means a symptom.

== Methodology of Modern Scientific Treatises ==
Modern technological advancements are bringing in various investigative procedures for verification of processes through experimental procedures. Standards and control checks are in place to ensure test results and reproducibility of any experiment is of great importance. Following a strict protocols adhering to standard operating procedures in any industry has led to widespread standardization of products obtained. Reason is no longer sufficient and gone are the days of trial and error experimentation, every aspect of science now sustains on verifiability and experimental testing of knowledge.<ref name=":1" /> Modern Methodological Devices include
* Research Problem
* Literature Review
* Hypothesis
* Research Design
* Data Collection
* Data Analysis
* Presentation of Results
* Conclusions

==References==
<references />

Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)

2018-10-03T13:28:43Z

Sumit: /* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ Tatchilya */

Shastra rachanapaddhati (Samskrit : शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः) means the methodology of construction of scientific and theoretical texts such as shastras and poetics. Samskrit literature abounds with thousands of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than half a dozen books provide us the detailed information outlining the devices or means for composition of a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra. Every Bharatiya shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using these principles of methodology, of which the teachers, students, and the critics who expounded theoretical works on those subjects, were required to be familiar with.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,
*Vishnudharmottara Purana, contains discussions on sundry topics like poetics, arts, sculpture
*Panini Maharshi's Ashtadhyayi, a world famous grammar treatise
*Kautilya's Arthashastra, a work on polity and statecraft
*Charaka Samhita, greatest extant work on Ayurveda
*Sushruta Samhita, a renowned work on surgery
*Vagbhata's Ashtangasangraha and Ashtangahrdayam, books on Ayurveda
*Nilamegha's Tantrayuktivichara, a medical treatise
Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, Indu were authors of commentaries which have methodology of importance.

== Methodology of Ancient Shastras ==
Earliest instances of methodical composition of knowledge base can be seen in the Anukramanikas. They are associated with Vedic texts and are the scientific indices on the vedic mantras. Each Veda contains atleast one such index. Because of Anukramanikas the texts have been preserved and tradition continued. These indices are very systematic recording the exact number of mantras, even aksharas, such that no scope for interpolation or deletion was allowed preserving the text accurately.

Nyaya Shastra which is the primary source of logic for all other shastras, explains five requisite methodologies as follows:<ref>Dash, Kesab Chandra. (1992) ''Elements of Research Methodology in Sanskrit.'' Varanasi : Chaukamba Sanskrit Sansthan</ref>
# प्रतिज्ञा । Pratijna is the hypothesis that needs to be evaluated
# हेतुः । Hetuhu is the proposed reasoning of the problem
# उदाहरणम् । Udaharana include the examples, illustrations or data in support of the hypothesis
# उपनयः । Upanaya includes verification and devices to establish the correlation
# निगमनम् । Nigamana draws the conclusion
All the shastras and poetic works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. As such these concepts can be understood by illustrations from poetics also. The lesser known fact is that these great Indian thinkers after a thorough research, in-depth comprehensive study of the shastras available to them, formulated a methodology for building scientific theories having 95 constituents, under five headings.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan</ref><ref name=":1" />
#तन्त्रयुक्तयः (tantrayuktayaḥ) ॥ Tantrayuktis (36)
#व्याख्यानि (vyākhyāni) ॥ Vyakhyas (15)
#कल्पनाः (kalpanāḥ) ॥ Kalpanas (7)
#आश्रयानि (āśrayāni)॥ Ashrayas (20)
#ताच्छील्यानि (tācchīlyāni)॥ Taatchilyas (17)
A brief introduction of each of the five given elements of composition and presentation of shastras will be undertaken in this topic.
===तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥Tantrayukti===
[[Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)]], an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref> According to Kautilya's Arthashastra the following list of 32 Tantrayuktis are given<ref name=":2" />

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 700px; font-style: normal; color: #;|* अधिकरणम् ॥ adhikaraṇam (Topic)
* विधानम् ॥ vidhānam (Statement of Contents)
* योगः ॥ yogaḥ (Employment of sentences)
* पदार्थः ॥ padārthaḥ (Meaning of the word)
* हेत्वर्थः ॥ hetvarthaḥ (Reason)
* उद्धेशः ॥ uddheśaḥ (Mention)
* निर्देशः ॥ nirdeśaḥ (Explanation)
* उपदेशः ॥ upadeśaḥ (Advice)
* अपदेशः ॥ apadeśaḥ (Reference)
* अतिदेशः ॥ atideśaḥ (Application)
* प्रदेशः ॥ pradeśaḥ (Indication)
* उपमानम् ॥ upamānam (Analogy)
* अर्थापत्तिः ॥ arthāpattiḥ (Implication)
* संशयः ॥ saṁśayaḥ (Doubt)
* प्रसङ्गः ॥ prasaṅgaḥ (Situation)
* विपर्ययः ॥ viparyayaḥ (Contrary)
* वाक्यशेषः ॥ vākyaśeṣaḥ (Completion of a sentence)
* अनुमतम् ॥ anumatam (Agreement)
* व्याख्यानम् ॥ vyākhyānam (Emphasis)
* निर्वचनम् ॥ nirvacanam (Derivation)
* निदर्शनम् ॥ nidarśanam (Illustration)
* अपवर्गः ॥ apavargaḥ (Exception)
* स्वसंज्ञा ॥ svasaṁjñā (Technical term)
* पूर्वपक्षः ॥ pūrvapakṣaḥ (prima facie view)
* उत्तरपक्षः ॥ uttarapakṣaḥ (Correct view)
* एकान्तः ॥ ekāntaḥ (Invariable rule)
* अनागतावेक्षणम् ॥ anāgatāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a future statement)
* अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् ॥ atikrāntāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a past statement)
* नियोगः ॥ niyogaḥ (Restriction)
* विकल्पः ॥ vikalpaḥ (Option)
* समुच्चयः ॥ samuccayaḥ (Combination)
* ऊह्यम् ॥ ūhyam (What is understood)}}Again a word of wide import, Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of Veda, education, aphorism, knowledge, shastra and definition. Tantra is referred as a synonym for Shastra in the present context means a 'theory' is which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Thus it means a device or a method to systematically compose a text (or a shastra) to convey the intended ideas clearly.<ref name=":2" />

While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis.

=== व्याख्या ॥ Vyakhya ===
Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा ।</blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ piṇḍavyakhyā
* पदव्यख्या ॥ padavyakhyā
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ padārthavyakhyā
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ adhikaraṇavyakhyā
* प्रकरणव्यख्या ॥ prakaraṇavyakhyā
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ arthavyakhyā
* कृच्छ्रव्यख्या ॥ kr̥cchravyakhyā
* फलव्यख्या ॥ phalavyakhyā
* उच्चितकव्यख्या ॥ uccitakavyakhyā
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ nyāsavyakhyā
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ prayojanavyakhyā
* अनुलोमव्यख्या ॥ anulomavyakhyā
* प्रतिलोमव्यख्या ॥ pratilomavyakhyā
* अतिसूत्रव्यख्या ॥ atisūtravyakhyā
* समस्तव्यख्या ॥ samastavyakhyā }}Some Vyakhyas have similar meanings as in tantrayuktis, while some are different devices. A few examples are as follows:<ref name=":0" />
* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ Pinda Vyakhya is defined as सङ्क्षेपतया सूत्ररूपेणाध्यायादीनां व्यख्या।
Pinda vyakhya is a text containing a brief and synoptic explanation of the chapters, divisions in the form of a sutra.
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ Adhikarana Vyakhya is defined as यद्वस्तुकृतमारभ्य तदनुषङ्गेण व्यख्यानमारभ्यते ।
Adhikara vyakhya is defined as a detailed explanation with all-inclusive definitions, illustrations of the topic or subject undertaken.
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ Artha Vyakhya is defined as यत्र प्रकरणेसूत्रे वा स्वभावस्योपवर्णनं क्रियते । तद्यथा प्रकृतिरुच्यते स्वभावः।
Artha vyakhya is that text part which contains the description of the natural state of the subject in context, in detail. It is elaborate detail oriented, subtle or vivid description of the innate property of an item in context.
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ Nyasa Vyakhya is defined as यस्मिन्नधिकारे वर्तमाने तेनाधिकरणार्थेन सहितं सम्बन्धमभिवीक्ष्यान्यस्यार्थो विनिक्षिप्यते।
Nyasa vyakhya is defined as that text where " a doubt /question is raised initially about a shastra definition or a sutra meaning which is resolved later and to simultaneously discuss another meaning related to the sutra or shastra"
* पदव्यख्या ॥ Pada Vyakhya is defined as यत्पदाना छदें कृत्वोच्चारणम्।
Pada vyakhya is that text matter which contains grammatically split words contained in the sutra or karika by breaking up the sandhis, samasas and with etymological explanation. Padavyakhya consists of 3 processes Sandhi viccheda, Samasavigraha and Vyutpattikathana which helps the reader to understand words of the text.
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ Padartha Vyakhya is defined as तेषामेव पदानां विवरणम् ।
Padartha vyakhya contains the explanation of the words split in the Pada vyakhya. It helps the reader understand the meaning of each and every word of the text.
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ Prayojana Vyakhya is defined as यत्सूत्रमभिधीयमानम स्वार्थस्य निष्पत्तौ निमित्तभावमुपैति।
Prayojana vyakhya defines the purpose of using some words of the sutra, logic or concept indicated in the shastra or sutra. It is one of the important devices which imparts the core concept of the sutra or shastra to the reader.

Thus we see that Vyakhyas are devices to promote a clearer and better understanding of the words used in the scientific or poetic works. They have an important function of throwing light on the main scientific concepts and doctrines.

=== कल्पना ॥ Kalpana ===
Kalpana (कल्पना) means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना ।</blockquote>
* प्रधानकल्पना ॥ pradhānakalpanā - is of two kinds प्रधानस्य कल्पना and प्रधानेन कल्पना
* गुणकल्पना ॥ guṇakalpanā
* भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā
* लेशकल्पना ॥ leśakalpanā
* विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā
* आज्ञाकल्पना ॥ ājñākalpanā
प्रधानेन कल्पना ॥ pradhānēna kalpanā

Pradhana Kalpana is a method which is used to name a group of substances after one of them which predominantly possesses the common property. For example, there is a predominance of milk in milk, curds, buttermilk, butter, ghee etc, all these things are said to belong to the milk-group. This device follows the Nyaya ' प्रधानेन व्यपदेशा भवन्ति ' which the ancient thinkers commonly followed and is an important Kalpana.

भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā

Bhakshya Kalpana is used in the sense of utility or adoption especially important in Ayurvedic aspect. This mode of composition refers to the edible and drinkable substances to explain a scientific concept.

विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā

Vidya Kalpana is a composition that presents an assessment of the interdisciplinary study or scholarship of the author, and gives the reader an idea about the author's familiarity with other branches of knowledge. For example, Kshemendra advises that aspiring writers should familiarize themselves with the list of branches of knowledge that he lists.

=== आश्रयम् ॥ Ashraya ===
An ashraya (आश्रयम् ) is a prop, a supporting text or concept used to arrive at the correct meaning of the subject matter. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* आदिलोपः ॥ ādilopaḥ
* मध्यलोपः ॥ madhyalopaḥ
* अन्तलोपः ॥ antalopaḥ
* उभयपदलोपः ॥ ubhayapadalopaḥ
* आदिमध्यान्तलोपः ॥ ādimadhyāntalopaḥ
* वर्णोपजननम् ॥ varṇopajananam
* ऋषिक्लिष्टम् ॥ r̥ṣikliṣṭam
* तन्त्रशीलम् ॥ tantraśīlam
* तन्त्रसंज्ञा ॥ tantrasaṁjñā
* प्राकृतम् ॥ prākr̥tam
* समानतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ samānatantrapratyayaḥ
* परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ
* हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ
* कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ
* आद्यन्तविपर्ययः ॥ ādyantaviparyayaḥ
* शब्दान्तरम् ॥ śabdāntaram
* प्रत्ययः ॥ pratyayaḥ
* उपनयः ॥ upanayaḥ
* सम्भवः ॥ sambhavaḥ
* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ

When a shastra concept is such that it cannot be explained clearly with the help of one's treatise, or another author's treatise belonging to the same branch of learning, then the explanation is attempted using the concepts presented in a different discipline. Poetics are abundant with examples of such type of compositions.

हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ

Hetu means a major or potential cause; Hetuka means a minor or incidental cause. To make an inference of the dharma or the common property after reading or hearing both the Hetu and hetuka is called the Hetuhetukadharma Ashraya. It is to be kept in mind that Hetu unfailingly brings about the effect. This concept support system helps the reader draw a line of demarcation between the major and minor causes of an effect and thus finds place as an important consideration in building the methodology of a text.

कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ

To speak of an effect as a cause and a cause as an effect in a secondary sense is called Karyakarana Dharma. Kshemendra affirms that Auchitya, propriety, is the property or cause that brings poetry to life (effect). Vakrokti, an elegant turn of expression, is a means to achieve poetic beauty. There is a cause and effect relationship between the Vakrokti and Charuta. Alamkara shastra abounds with many such examples.

=== ताच्छील्यम् ॥ Tatchilya ===
Tatchilya is an informal use of a word in a scientific or poetic composition. In common language, people normally use words with extending, stretching or even twisted meanings, implying them to describe other situations, actions than they were originally meant for. This is the metaphorical process and in essence means transfer of meaning of a word to an entirely different context or situation. For example : we say 'In the eyes of law she was guilty and punished', here we mean in the 'view of law', since law, an inanimate thing cannot have eyes, and its action of viewing is extended to law. But such usages are very common and many times are used to enhance poetic beauty.

This 'extension of meaning to something else' or 'a secondary use of language' is called Tatchilya. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas

सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् । {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam
* अवयवः ॥ avayavaḥ
* विकारः॥ vikāraḥ
* सामीप्यम्॥ sāmīpyam
* भूयस्त्वम्॥ bhūyastvam
* प्रकारः॥ prakāraḥ
* गुणिगुणविभवः ॥ guṇiguṇavibhavaḥ
* संसक्ता ॥ saṁsaktā
* तद्धर्मता ॥ taddharmatā
* स्थानम् ॥ sthānam
* तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam
* साहचर्यम् ॥ sāhacaryam
* कर्म ॥ karma
* गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā
* चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā
* मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā
* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}

== Methodology of Modern Scientific Treatises ==
Modern technological advancements are bringing in various investigative procedures for verification of processes through experimental procedures. Standards and control checks are in place to ensure test results and reproducibility of any experiment is of great importance. Following a strict protocols adhering to standard operating procedures in any industry has led to widespread standardization of products obtained. Reason is no longer sufficient and gone are the days of trial and error experimentation, every aspect of science now sustains on verifiability and experimental testing of knowledge.<ref name=":1" /> Modern Methodological Devices include
* Research Problem
* Literature Review
* Hypothesis
* Research Design
* Data Collection
* Data Analysis
* Presentation of Results
* Conclusions

==References==
<references />

Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)

2018-10-03T11:03:59Z

Sumit: adding content

Shastra rachanapaddhati (Samskrit : शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः) means the methodology of construction of scientific and theoretical texts such as shastras and poetics. Samskrit literature abounds with thousands of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than half a dozen books provide us the detailed information outlining the devices or means for composition of a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra. Every Bharatiya shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using these principles of methodology, of which the teachers, students, and the critics who expounded theoretical works on those subjects, were required to be familiar with.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Mahadevan, Jayaraman (2008) Paper Presentation : ''The Doctrine of Tantrayukti'' at University of Hyderabad, Department of Sanskrit Studies</ref>

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,
*Vishnudharmottara Purana, contains discussions on sundry topics like poetics, arts, sculpture
*Panini Maharshi's Ashtadhyayi, a world famous grammar treatise
*Kautilya's Arthashastra, a work on polity and statecraft
*Charaka Samhita, greatest extant work on Ayurveda
*Sushruta Samhita, a renowned work on surgery
*Vagbhata's Ashtangasangraha and Ashtangahrdayam, books on Ayurveda
*Nilamegha's Tantrayuktivichara, a medical treatise
Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, Indu were authors of commentaries which have methodology of importance.

== Methodology of Ancient Shastras ==
Earliest instances of methodical composition of knowledge base can be seen in the Anukramanikas. They are associated with Vedic texts and are the scientific indices on the vedic mantras. Each Veda contains atleast one such index. Because of Anukramanikas the texts have been preserved and tradition continued. These indices are very systematic recording the exact number of mantras, even aksharas, such that no scope for interpolation or deletion was allowed preserving the text accurately.

Nyaya Shastra which is the primary source of logic for all other shastras, explains five requisite methodologies as follows:<ref>Dash, Kesab Chandra. (1992) ''Elements of Research Methodology in Sanskrit.'' Varanasi : Chaukamba Sanskrit Sansthan</ref>
# प्रतिज्ञा । Pratijna is the hypothesis that needs to be evaluated
# हेतुः । Hetuhu is the proposed reasoning of the problem
# उदाहरणम् । Udaharana include the examples, illustrations or data in support of the hypothesis
# उपनयः । Upanaya includes verification and devices to establish the correlation
# निगमनम् । Nigamana draws the conclusion
All the shastras and poetic works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. As such these concepts can be understood by illustrations from poetics also. The lesser known fact is that these great Indian thinkers after a thorough research, in-depth comprehensive study of the shastras available to them, formulated a methodology for building scientific theories having 95 constituents, under five headings.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan</ref><ref name=":1" />
#तन्त्रयुक्तयः (tantrayuktayaḥ) ॥ Tantrayuktis (36)
#व्याख्यानि (vyākhyāni) ॥ Vyakhyas (15)
#कल्पनाः (kalpanāḥ) ॥ Kalpanas (7)
#आश्रयानि (āśrayāni)॥ Ashrayas (20)
#ताच्छील्यानि (tācchīlyāni)॥ Taatchilyas (17)
A brief introduction of each of the five given elements of composition and presentation of shastras will be undertaken in this topic.
===तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥Tantrayukti===
[[Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)]], an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref> According to Kautilya's Arthashastra the following list of 32 Tantrayuktis are given<ref name=":2" />

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 700px; font-style: normal;|* अधिकरणम् ॥ adhikaraṇam (Topic)
* विधानम् ॥ vidhānam (Statement of Contents)
* योगः ॥ yogaḥ (Employment of sentences)
* पदार्थः ॥ padārthaḥ (Meaning of the word)
* हेत्वर्थः ॥ hetvarthaḥ (Reason)
* उद्धेशः ॥ uddheśaḥ (Mention)
* निर्देशः ॥ nirdeśaḥ (Explanation)
* उपदेशः ॥ upadeśaḥ (Advice)
* अपदेशः ॥ apadeśaḥ (Reference)
* अतिदेशः ॥ atideśaḥ (Application)
* प्रदेशः ॥ pradeśaḥ (Indication)
* उपमानम् ॥ upamānam (Analogy)
* अर्थापत्तिः ॥ arthāpattiḥ (Implication)
* संशयः ॥ saṁśayaḥ (Doubt)
* प्रसङ्गः ॥ prasaṅgaḥ (Situation)
* विपर्ययः ॥ viparyayaḥ (Contrary)
* वाक्यशेषः ॥ vākyaśeṣaḥ (Completion of a sentence)
* अनुमतम् ॥ anumatam (Agreement)
* व्याख्यानम् ॥ vyākhyānam (Emphasis)
* निर्वचनम् ॥ nirvacanam (Derivation)
* निदर्शनम् ॥ nidarśanam (Illustration)
* अपवर्गः ॥ apavargaḥ (Exception)
* स्वसंज्ञा ॥ svasaṁjñā (Technical term)
* पूर्वपक्षः ॥ pūrvapakṣaḥ (prima facie view)
* उत्तरपक्षः ॥ uttarapakṣaḥ (Correct view)
* एकान्तः ॥ ekāntaḥ (Invariable rule)
* अनागतावेक्षणम् ॥ anāgatāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a future statement)
* अतिक्रान्तावेक्षणम् ॥ atikrāntāvekṣaṇam (Reference to a past statement)
* नियोगः ॥ niyogaḥ (Restriction)
* विकल्पः ॥ vikalpaḥ (Option)
* समुच्चयः ॥ samuccayaḥ (Combination)
* ऊह्यम् ॥ ūhyam (What is understood)}}Again a word of wide import, Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of Veda, education, aphorism, knowledge, shastra and definition. Tantra is referred as a synonym for Shastra in the present context means a 'theory' is which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Thus it means a device or a method to systematically compose a text (or a shastra) to convey the intended ideas clearly.<ref name=":2" />

While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis.

=== व्याख्या ॥ Vyakhya ===
Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा ।</blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ piṇḍavyakhyā
* पदव्यख्या ॥ padavyakhyā
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ padārthavyakhyā
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ adhikaraṇavyakhyā
* प्रकरणव्यख्या ॥ prakaraṇavyakhyā
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ arthavyakhyā
* कृच्छ्रव्यख्या ॥ kr̥cchravyakhyā
* फलव्यख्या ॥ phalavyakhyā
* उच्चितकव्यख्या ॥ uccitakavyakhyā
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ nyāsavyakhyā
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ prayojanavyakhyā
* अनुलोमव्यख्या ॥ anulomavyakhyā
* प्रतिलोमव्यख्या ॥ pratilomavyakhyā
* अतिसूत्रव्यख्या ॥ atisūtravyakhyā
* समस्तव्यख्या ॥ samastavyakhyā }}Some Vyakhyas have similar meanings as in tantrayuktis, while some are different devices. A few examples are as follows:<ref name=":0" />
* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ Pinda Vyakhya is defined as सङ्क्षेपतया सूत्ररूपेणाध्यायादीनां व्यख्या।
Pinda vyakhya is a text containing a brief and synoptic explanation of the chapters, divisions in the form of a sutra.
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ Adhikarana Vyakhya is defined as यद्वस्तुकृतमारभ्य तदनुषङ्गेण व्यख्यानमारभ्यते ।
Adhikara vyakhya is defined as a detailed explanation with all-inclusive definitions, illustrations of the topic or subject undertaken.
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ Artha Vyakhya is defined as यत्र प्रकरणेसूत्रे वा स्वभावस्योपवर्णनं क्रियते । तद्यथा प्रकृतिरुच्यते स्वभावः।
Artha vyakhya is that text part which contains the description of the natural state of the subject in context, in detail. It is elaborate detail oriented, subtle or vivid description of the innate property of an item in context.
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ Nyasa Vyakhya is defined as यस्मिन्नधिकारे वर्तमाने तेनाधिकरणार्थेन सहितं सम्बन्धमभिवीक्ष्यान्यस्यार्थो विनिक्षिप्यते।
Nyasa vyakhya is defined as that text where " a doubt /question is raised initially about a shastra definition or a sutra meaning which is resolved later and to simultaneously discuss another meaning related to the sutra or shastra"
* पदव्यख्या ॥ Pada Vyakhya is defined as यत्पदाना छदें कृत्वोच्चारणम्।
Pada vyakhya is that text matter which contains grammatically split words contained in the sutra or karika by breaking up the sandhis, samasas and with etymological explanation. Padavyakhya consists of 3 processes Sandhi viccheda, Samasavigraha and Vyutpattikathana which helps the reader to understand words of the text.
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ Padartha Vyakhya is defined as तेषामेव पदानां विवरणम् ।
Padartha vyakhya contains the explanation of the words split in the Pada vyakhya. It helps the reader understand the meaning of each and every word of the text.
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ Prayojana Vyakhya is defined as यत्सूत्रमभिधीयमानम स्वार्थस्य निष्पत्तौ निमित्तभावमुपैति।
Prayojana vyakhya defines the purpose of using some words of the sutra, logic or concept indicated in the shastra or sutra. It is one of the important devices which imparts the core concept of the sutra or shastra to the reader.

Thus we see that Vyakhyas are devices to promote a clearer and better understanding of the words used in the scientific or poetic works. They have an important function of throwing light on the main scientific concepts and doctrines.

=== कल्पना ॥ Kalpana ===
Kalpana (कल्पना) means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना ।</blockquote>
* प्रधानकल्पना ॥ pradhānakalpanā - is of two kinds प्रधानस्य कल्पना and प्रधानेन कल्पना
* गुणकल्पना ॥ guṇakalpanā
* भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā
* लेशकल्पना ॥ leśakalpanā
* विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā
* आज्ञाकल्पना ॥ ājñākalpanā
प्रधानेन कल्पना ॥ pradhānēna kalpanā

Pradhana Kalpana is a method which is used to name a group of substances after one of them which predominantly possesses the common property. For example, there is a predominance of milk in milk, curds, buttermilk, butter, ghee etc, all these things are said to belong to the milk-group. This device follows the Nyaya ' प्रधानेन व्यपदेशा भवन्ति ' which the ancient thinkers commonly followed and is an important Kalpana.

भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā

Bhakshya Kalpana is used in the sense of utility or adoption especially important in Ayurvedic aspect. This mode of composition refers to the edible and drinkable substances to explain a scientific concept.

विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā

Vidya Kalpana is a composition that presents an assessment of the interdisciplinary study or scholarship of the author, and gives the reader an idea about the author's familiarity with other branches of knowledge. For example, Kshemendra advises that aspiring writers should familiarize themselves with the list of branches of knowledge that he lists.

=== आश्रयम् ॥ Ashraya ===
An ashraya (आश्रयम् ) is a prop, a supporting text or concept used to arrive at the correct meaning of the subject matter. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* आदिलोपः ॥ ādilopaḥ
* मध्यलोपः ॥ madhyalopaḥ
* अन्तलोपः ॥ antalopaḥ
* उभयपदलोपः ॥ ubhayapadalopaḥ
* आदिमध्यान्तलोपः ॥ ādimadhyāntalopaḥ
* वर्णोपजननम् ॥ varṇopajananam
* ऋषिक्लिष्टम् ॥ r̥ṣikliṣṭam
* तन्त्रशीलम् ॥ tantraśīlam
* तन्त्रसंज्ञा ॥ tantrasaṁjñā
* प्राकृतम् ॥ prākr̥tam
* समानतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ samānatantrapratyayaḥ
* परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ
* हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ
* कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ
* आद्यन्तविपर्ययः ॥ ādyantaviparyayaḥ
* शब्दान्तरम् ॥ śabdāntaram
* प्रत्ययः ॥ pratyayaḥ
* उपनयः ॥ upanayaḥ
* सम्भवः ॥ sambhavaḥ
* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ

When a shastra concept is such that it cannot be explained clearly with the help of one's treatise, or another author's treatise belonging to the same branch of learning, then the explanation is attempted using the concepts presented in a different discipline. Poetics are abundant with examples of such type of compositions.

हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ

Hetu means a major or potential cause; Hetuka means a minor or incidental cause. To make an inference of the dharma or the common property after reading or hearing both the Hetu and hetuka is called the Hetuhetukadharma Ashraya. It is to be kept in mind that Hetu unfailingly brings about the effect. This concept support system helps the reader draw a line of demarcation between the major and minor causes of an effect and thus finds place as an important consideration in building the methodology of a text.

कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ

To speak of an effect as a cause and a cause as an effect in a secondary sense is called Karyakarana Dharma. Kshemendra affirms that Auchitya, propriety, is the property or cause that brings poetry to life (effect). Vakrokti, an elegant turn of expression, is a means to achieve poetic beauty. There is a cause and effect relationship between the Vakrokti and Charuta. Alamkara shastra abounds with many such examples.

=== ताच्छील्यम् ॥ Tatchilya ===
Tatchilya is an informal use of a word in a scientific or poetic composition. In common language, people normally use words with extending, stretching or even twisted meanings, implying them to describe other situations, actions than they were originally meant for. This is the metaphorical process and in essence means transfer of meaning of a word to an entirely different context or situation. For example : we say 'In the eyes of law she was guilty and punished', here we mean in the 'view of law', since law, an inanimate thing cannot have eyes, and its action of viewing is extended to law. But such usages are very common and many times are used to enhance poetic beauty.

This 'extension of meaning to something else' or 'a secondary use of language' is called Tatchilya. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas

सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् । {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam
* अवयवः ॥ avayavaḥ
* विकारः॥ vikāraḥ
* सामीप्यम्॥ sāmīpyam
* भूयस्त्वम्॥ bhūyastvam
* प्रकारः॥ prakāraḥ
* गुणिगुणविभवः ॥ guṇiguṇavibhavaḥ
* संसक्ता ॥ saṁsaktā
* तद्धर्मता ॥ taddharmatā
* स्थानम् ॥ sthānam
* तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam
* साहचर्यम् ॥ sāhacaryam
* कर्म ॥ karma
* गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā
* चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā
* मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā
* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}

== Methodology of Modern Scientific Treatises ==
Modern technological advancements are bringing in various investigative procedures for verification of processes through experimental procedures. Standards and control checks are in place to ensure test results and reproducibility of any experiment is of great importance. Following a strict protocols adhering to standard operating procedures in any industry has led to widespread standardization of products obtained. Reason is no longer sufficient and gone are the days of trial and error experimentation, every aspect of science now sustains on verifiability and experimental testing of knowledge.<ref name=":1" /> Modern Methodological Devices include
* Research Problem
* Literature Review
* Hypothesis
* Research Design
* Data Collection
* Data Analysis
* Presentation of Results
* Conclusions

==References==
<references />

Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)

2018-10-02T15:03:37Z

Sumit: /* Kalpana */

Shastra rachanapaddhati (Samskrit : शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः) means the methodology of composition of shastras. Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than half a dozen books provide us the detailed information outlining the devices or means for composition of a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra. Every Bharatiya shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using these principles of methodology, of which the teachers, students, and the critics who expounded theoretical works on those subjects, were required to be familiar with.

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,
*Vishnudharmottara Purana, contains discussions on sundry topics like poetics, arts, sculpture
*Panini Maharshi's Ashtadhyayi, a world famous grammar treatise
*Kautilya's Arthashastra, a work on polity and statecraft
*Charaka Samhita, greatest extant work on Ayurveda
*Sushruta Samhita, a renowned work on surgery
*Vagbhata's Ashtangasangraha and Ashtangahrdayam, books on Ayurveda
*Nilamegha's Tantrayuktivichara, a medical treatise
Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, Indu were authors of commentaries which have methodology of importance.

== Constituents of Methodology ==
All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. As such these concepts can be understood by illustrations from poetics also. The lesser known fact is that these great Indian thinkers after a thorough research, in-depth comprehensive study of the shastras available to them, formulated a methodology for building scientific theories having 95 constituents, under five headings.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan</ref><ref name=":1" />
#तन्त्रयुक्तयः (tantrayuktayaḥ) ॥ Tantrayuktis (36)
#व्याख्यानि (vyākhyāni) ॥ Vyakhyas (15)
#कल्पनाः (kalpanāḥ) ॥ Kalpanas (7)
#आश्रयानि (āśrayāni)॥ Ashrayas (20)
#ताच्छील्यानि (tācchīlyāni)॥ Taatchilyas (17)
A brief introduction of each of the five given elements of composition and presentation of shastras will be undertaken in this topic.
===Tantrayukti===
[[Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)]], an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref>

Again a word of wide import, Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject.

While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis.

=== Vyakhya ===
Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा ।</blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ piṇḍavyakhyā
* पदव्यख्या ॥ padavyakhyā
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ padārthavyakhyā
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ adhikaraṇavyakhyā
* प्रकरणव्यख्या ॥ prakaraṇavyakhyā
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ arthavyakhyā
* कृच्छ्रव्यख्या ॥ kr̥cchravyakhyā
* फलव्यख्या ॥ phalavyakhyā
* उच्चितकव्यख्या ॥ uccitakavyakhyā
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ nyāsavyakhyā
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ prayojanavyakhyā
* अनुलोमव्यख्या ॥ anulomavyakhyā
* प्रतिलोमव्यख्या ॥ pratilomavyakhyā
* अतिसूत्रव्यख्या ॥ atisūtravyakhyā
* समस्तव्यख्या ॥ samastavyakhyā }}

=== Kalpana ===
Kalpana means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना ।</blockquote>
* प्रधानकल्पना ॥ pradhānakalpanā - is of two kinds प्रधानस्य कल्पना and प्रधानेन कल्पना
* गुणकल्पना ॥ guṇakalpanā
* भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā
* लेशकल्पना ॥ leśakalpanā
* विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā
* आज्ञाकल्पना ॥ ājñākalpanā

=== Ashraya ===
An ashraya is a prop used to arrive at the correct meaning of the text. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* आदिलोपः ॥ ādilopaḥ
* मध्यलोपः ॥ madhyalopaḥ
* अन्तलोपः ॥ antalopaḥ
* उभयपदलोपः ॥ ubhayapadalopaḥ
* आदिमध्यान्तलोपः ॥ ādimadhyāntalopaḥ
* वर्णोपजननम् ॥ varṇopajananam
* ऋषिक्लिष्टम् ॥ r̥ṣikliṣṭam
* तन्त्रशीलम् ॥ tantraśīlam
* तन्त्रसंज्ञा ॥ tantrasaṁjñā
* प्राकृतम् ॥ prākr̥tam
* समानतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ samānatantrapratyayaḥ
* परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ
* हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ
* कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ
* आद्यन्तविपर्ययः ॥ ādyantaviparyayaḥ
* शब्दान्तरम् ॥ śabdāntaram
* प्रत्ययः ॥ pratyayaḥ
* उपनयः ॥ upanayaḥ
* सम्भवः ॥ sambhavaḥ
* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}

=== ताच्छील्यानि ॥ Tatchilyas ===
Tatchilya is an informal use of a word in a scientific composition. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas

सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् । {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam
* अवयवः ॥ avayavaḥ
* विकारः॥ vikāraḥ
* सामीप्यम्॥ sāmīpyam
* भूयस्त्वम्॥ bhūyastvam
* प्रकारः॥ prakāraḥ
* गुणिगुणविभवः ॥ guṇiguṇavibhavaḥ
* संसक्ता ॥ saṁsaktā
* तद्धर्मता ॥ taddharmatā
* स्थानम् ॥ sthānam
* तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam
* साहचर्यम् ॥ sāhacaryam
* कर्म ॥ karma
* गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā
* चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā
* मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā
* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}

==References==
<references />

Shastra Rachana Paddhati (शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः)

2018-10-02T14:58:20Z

Sumit: /* Vyakhya */ adding content

Shastra rachanapaddhati (Samskrit : शास्त्ररचनापद्धतिः) means the methodology of composition of shastras. Samskrit literature abounds with hundreds of treatises pertaining to ancient Bharatiya Vijnana shastras of which more than half a dozen books provide us the detailed information outlining the devices or means for composition of a scientific or methodical structure of a shastra. Every Bharatiya shastra, irrespective of its subject matter, has been built using these principles of methodology, of which the teachers, students, and the critics who expounded theoretical works on those subjects, were required to be familiar with.

== परिचयः|| Introduction ==
Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,
*Vishnudharmottara Purana, contains discussions on sundry topics like poetics, arts, sculpture
*Panini Maharshi's Ashtadhyayi, a world famous grammar treatise
*Kautilya's Arthashastra, a work on polity and statecraft
*Charaka Samhita, greatest extant work on Ayurveda
*Sushruta Samhita, a renowned work on surgery
*Vagbhata's Ashtangasangraha and Ashtangahrdayam, books on Ayurveda
*Nilamegha's Tantrayuktivichara, a medical treatise
Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, Indu were authors of commentaries which have methodology of importance.

== Constituents of Methodology ==
All these works, belonging to divergent disciplines, portray the depth of Indian thinkers, who looked at the scientific treatises from all possible angles, critically examined the various conceptual aspects of the scientific works along without neglecting the subtle aspects. The lesser known fact is that these great Indian thinkers after a thorough research, in-depth comprehensive study of the shastras available to them, formulated a methodology for building scientific theories having 95 constituents, under five headings.<ref name=":0">W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan</ref><ref name=":1" />
#तन्त्रयुक्तयः (tantrayuktayaḥ) ॥ Tantrayuktis (36)
#व्याख्यानि (vyākhyāni) ॥ Vyakhyas (15)
#कल्पनाः (kalpanāḥ) ॥ Kalpanas (7)
#आश्रयानि (āśrayāni)॥ Ashrayas (20)
#ताच्छील्यानि (tācchīlyāni)॥ Taatchilyas (17)
A brief introduction of each of the five given elements of composition and presentation of shastras will be undertaken in this topic.
===Tantrayukti===
[[Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)]], an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref>

Again a word of wide import, Tantra used as a synonym for Shastra (in this context means theory) is that which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject.

While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis.

=== Vyakhya ===
Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा ।</blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ piṇḍavyakhyā
* पदव्यख्या ॥ padavyakhyā
* पदार्थव्यख्या ॥ padārthavyakhyā
* अधिकरणव्यख्या ॥ adhikaraṇavyakhyā
* प्रकरणव्यख्या ॥ prakaraṇavyakhyā
* अर्थव्यख्या ॥ arthavyakhyā
* कृच्छ्रव्यख्या ॥ kr̥cchravyakhyā
* फलव्यख्या ॥ phalavyakhyā
* उच्चितकव्यख्या ॥ uccitakavyakhyā
* न्यासव्यख्या ॥ nyāsavyakhyā
* प्रयोजनव्यख्या ॥ prayojanavyakhyā
* अनुलोमव्यख्या ॥ anulomavyakhyā
* प्रतिलोमव्यख्या ॥ pratilomavyakhyā
* अतिसूत्रव्यख्या ॥ atisūtravyakhyā
* समस्तव्यख्या ॥ samastavyakhyā }}

=== Kalpana ===
Kalpana means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना ।</blockquote>
* प्रधानकल्पना ॥ pradhānakalpanā - is of two kinds प्रधानस्य कल्पना and प्रधानेन कल्पना
* गुणकल्पना ॥ guṇakalpanā
* लेशकल्पना ॥ leśakalpanā
* विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā
* आज्ञाकल्पना ॥ ājñākalpanā

=== Ashraya ===
An ashraya is a prop used to arrive at the correct meaning of the text. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|
* आदिलोपः ॥ ādilopaḥ
* मध्यलोपः ॥ madhyalopaḥ
* अन्तलोपः ॥ antalopaḥ
* उभयपदलोपः ॥ ubhayapadalopaḥ
* आदिमध्यान्तलोपः ॥ ādimadhyāntalopaḥ
* वर्णोपजननम् ॥ varṇopajananam
* ऋषिक्लिष्टम् ॥ r̥ṣikliṣṭam
* तन्त्रशीलम् ॥ tantraśīlam
* तन्त्रसंज्ञा ॥ tantrasaṁjñā
* प्राकृतम् ॥ prākr̥tam
* समानतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ samānatantrapratyayaḥ
* परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ
* हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ
* कार्यकारणधर्मः ॥ kāryakāraṇadharmaḥ
* आद्यन्तविपर्ययः ॥ ādyantaviparyayaḥ
* शब्दान्तरम् ॥ śabdāntaram
* प्रत्ययः ॥ pratyayaḥ
* उपनयः ॥ upanayaḥ
* सम्भवः ॥ sambhavaḥ
* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}

=== ताच्छील्यानि ॥ Tatchilyas ===
Tatchilya is an informal use of a word in a scientific composition. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas

सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् । {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam
* अवयवः ॥ avayavaḥ
* विकारः॥ vikāraḥ
* सामीप्यम्॥ sāmīpyam
* भूयस्त्वम्॥ bhūyastvam
* प्रकारः॥ prakāraḥ
* गुणिगुणविभवः ॥ guṇiguṇavibhavaḥ
* संसक्ता ॥ saṁsaktā
* तद्धर्मता ॥ taddharmatā
* स्थानम् ॥ sthānam
* तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam
* साहचर्यम् ॥ sāhacaryam
* कर्म ॥ karma
* गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā
* चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā
* मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā
* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}

==References==
<references />

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-01T16:43:17Z

Sumit:

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-01T16:02:23Z

Sumit: /* परिचयः|| Introduction */ adding content

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-01T14:35:44Z

Sumit:

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-01T13:37:06Z

Sumit: adding content

Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)

2018-10-01T11:05:16Z

Sumit:

Tantrayukti (Samskrit : तन्त्रयुक्तिः) means the methodology of composing scientific works. The ancient Indians were widely and rightly known for their assiduous pursuit of knowledge (ज्ञानम्) which is considered to be the most sacred thing in the world.<ref>W. K. Lele (2006) ''Methodology of Ancient Indian Sciences'' Varanasi : Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan </ref>

== References ==