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2022-11-16T07:10:29Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-16T07:07:00Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* समरान्गणसूत्रधार: || Samaranganasutradhara */

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत्संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihatsamhita ==
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

* '''The Meru Temple''' is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).
* The '''Mandara''' type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara.
* The '''Kailasa''' kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.
* The '''Vimana Chhanda''' is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits.
* The '''Nandana''' possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.
* '''Samudga''' is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara..
* The '''Padma''' temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.
* The shape of the '''Garuda''' temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.
* The '''Nandivardhana''' is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.
* The '''Kunjara''' is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).
* The '''Guharaja''' measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.
* The '''Vrisha''' is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.
* The '''Hamsa''' was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.
* The '''Ghata''' temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.
* The '''Sarvatobhadra''' temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.
* The '''Simha Temple''' possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.
* The '''Vritta''' temple is shaped like a circle.
* The '''Chatushkona''' temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.
* As the name itself indicates, the '''Shodashri''' temple has a total of sixteen angles.
* The '''Ashtashri''' temple possesses eight angles.<ref>Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.</ref>

== विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana ==
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana affiliated to the Vishnu Purana . Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are

* Himavan
* Malyavan
* Shringavan
* Agara
* Griha
* Bhavana
* Shikhara
* Kunjara
* Gandhamadana
* Subhadra
* Saumya
* Arunodaya
* Guha
* Garuda
* Sarvatobhadra
* Mekhala
* Vriddhida
* Triguna
* Valabhi
* Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.<ref>Shah, Priyabala (1990) ''Shri Vishnudharmottara''. Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co </ref>

== मत्स्यपुराणम् || Matsya Purana ==

* The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows
* Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis)
* Mandara (12 bhumis),
* Kailasa (9 bhumis)
* Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis)
* Simha (shape of a lion)
* Mriga
* Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis)
* Chhandaka (8 bhumis)
* Chaturastra
* Astastra
* Shodashastra
* Vartula
* Sarvabhadraka
* Simhasya
* Nandana
* Nandivardhana (7 bhumis)
* Hamsa
* Vrusha-fulfills all desires
* Suvarnesha
* Padmaka (3 bhumis)
* Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis)
* Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis)
* Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas)
* Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis)
* Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis)

Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka). The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are

* Pushpaka
* Pushpabhadra
* Suvrata
* Amruta
* Nandana
* Kaushalya
* Gajabhadra
* Jayavaha
* Shrivatsa
* Vijaya
* Shatrumardana
* Sugriva
* Harit
* Shyamabhadra
* Subhadra etc.<ref>Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== अग्निपुराणम् || Agni Purana ==
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.<ref>Agni Purana (2018) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== समरान्गणसूत्रधार: || Samaranganasutradhara ==
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like '''Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi.''' Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

== मयमतम् || Mayamatam ==
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

# Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof
# Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted part
# Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.<ref>Dagnes, Bruno (1994) Mayamatam: Treatise of Housing Architecture and Iconography. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre For The Arts. </ref>

== References ==

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-16T07:03:54Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita */

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत्संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihatsamhita ==
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

* '''The Meru Temple''' is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).
* The '''Mandara''' type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara.
* The '''Kailasa''' kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.
* The '''Vimana Chhanda''' is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits.
* The '''Nandana''' possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.
* '''Samudga''' is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara..
* The '''Padma''' temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.
* The shape of the '''Garuda''' temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.
* The '''Nandivardhana''' is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.
* The '''Kunjara''' is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).
* The '''Guharaja''' measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.
* The '''Vrisha''' is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.
* The '''Hamsa''' was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.
* The '''Ghata''' temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.
* The '''Sarvatobhadra''' temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.
* The '''Simha Temple''' possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.
* The '''Vritta''' temple is shaped like a circle.
* The '''Chatushkona''' temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.
* As the name itself indicates, the '''Shodashri''' temple has a total of sixteen angles.
* The '''Ashtashri''' temple possesses eight angles.<ref>Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.</ref>

== विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana ==
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana affiliated to the Vishnu Purana . Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are

* Himavan
* Malyavan
* Shringavan
* Agara
* Griha
* Bhavana
* Shikhara
* Kunjara
* Gandhamadana
* Subhadra
* Saumya
* Arunodaya
* Guha
* Garuda
* Sarvatobhadra
* Mekhala
* Vriddhida
* Triguna
* Valabhi
* Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.<ref>Shah, Priyabala (1990) ''Shri Vishnudharmottara''. Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co </ref>

== मत्स्यपुराणम् || Matsya Purana ==

* The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows
* Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis)
* Mandara (12 bhumis),
* Kailasa (9 bhumis)
* Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis)
* Simha (shape of a lion)
* Mriga
* Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis)
* Chhandaka (8 bhumis)
* Chaturastra
* Astastra
* Shodashastra
* Vartula
* Sarvabhadraka
* Simhasya
* Nandana
* Nandivardhana (7 bhumis)
* Hamsa
* Vrusha-fulfills all desires
* Suvarnesha
* Padmaka (3 bhumis)
* Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis)
* Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis)
* Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas)
* Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis)
* Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis)

Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka). The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are

* Pushpaka
* Pushpabhadra
* Suvrata
* Amruta
* Nandana
* Kaushalya
* Gajabhadra
* Jayavaha
* Shrivatsa
* Vijaya
* Shatrumardana
* Sugriva
* Harit
* Shyamabhadra
* Subhadra etc.<ref>Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== अग्निपुराणम् || Agni Purana ==
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.<ref>Agni Purana (2018) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== समरान्गणसूत्रधार: || Samaranganasutradhara ==
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

== मयमतम् || Mayamatam ==
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

# Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof
# Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted part
# Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.<ref>Dagnes, Bruno (1994) Mayamatam: Treatise of Housing Architecture and Iconography. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre For The Arts. </ref>

== References ==

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-16T06:49:02Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana */

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita ==
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

* '''The Meru Temple''' is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).
* The '''Mandara''' type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara.
* The '''Kailasa''' kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.
* The '''Vimana Chhanda''' is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits.
* The '''Nandana''' possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.
* '''Samudga''' is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara..
* The '''Padma''' temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.
* The shape of the '''Garuda''' temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.
* The '''Nandivardhana''' is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.
* The '''Kunjara''' is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).
* The '''Guharaja''' measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.
* The '''Vrisha''' is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.
* The '''Hamsa''' was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.
* The '''Ghata''' temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.
* The '''Sarvatobhadra''' temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.
* The '''Simha Temple''' possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.
* The '''Vritta''' temple is shaped like a circle.
* The '''Chatushkona''' temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.
* As the name itself indicates, the '''Shodashri''' temple has a total of sixteen angles.
* The '''Ashtashri''' temple possesses eight angles.<ref>Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.</ref>

== विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana ==
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana affiliated to the Vishnu Purana . Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are

* Himavan
* Malyavan
* Shringavan
* Agara
* Griha
* Bhavana
* Shikhara
* Kunjara
* Gandhamadana
* Subhadra
* Saumya
* Arunodaya
* Guha
* Garuda
* Sarvatobhadra
* Mekhala
* Vriddhida
* Triguna
* Valabhi
* Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.<ref>Shah, Priyabala (1990) ''Shri Vishnudharmottara''. Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co </ref>

== मत्स्य पुराणम् || Matsya Purana ==
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.<ref>Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== अग्नि पुराणम् || Agni Purana ==
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.<ref>Agni Purana (2018) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== समरान्गणसूत्रधार: || Samaranganasutradhara ==
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

== मयमतम् || Mayamatam ==
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

# Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof
# Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted part
# Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.<ref>Dagnes, Bruno (1994) Mayamatam: Treatise of Housing Architecture and Iconography. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre For The Arts. </ref>

== References ==

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-16T06:42:29Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita */

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita ==
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

* '''The Meru Temple''' is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).
* The '''Mandara''' type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara.
* The '''Kailasa''' kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.
* The '''Vimana Chhanda''' is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits.
* The '''Nandana''' possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.
* '''Samudga''' is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara..
* The '''Padma''' temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.
* The shape of the '''Garuda''' temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.
* The '''Nandivardhana''' is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.
* The '''Kunjara''' is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).
* The '''Guharaja''' measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.
* The '''Vrisha''' is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.
* The '''Hamsa''' was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.
* The '''Ghata''' temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.
* The '''Sarvatobhadra''' temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.
* The '''Simha Temple''' possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.
* The '''Vritta''' temple is shaped like a circle.
* The '''Chatushkona''' temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.
* As the name itself indicates, the '''Shodashri''' temple has a total of sixteen angles.
* The '''Ashtashri''' temple possesses eight angles.<ref>Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.</ref>

== विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana ==
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana affiliated to the Vishnu Purana . Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.<ref>Shah, Priyabala (1990) ''Shri Vishnudharmottara''. Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co </ref>

== मत्स्य पुराणम् || Matsya Purana ==
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.<ref>Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== अग्नि पुराणम् || Agni Purana ==
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.<ref>Agni Purana (2018) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== समरान्गणसूत्रधार: || Samaranganasutradhara ==
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

== मयमतम् || Mayamatam ==
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

# Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof
# Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted part
# Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.<ref>Dagnes, Bruno (1994) Mayamatam: Treatise of Housing Architecture and Iconography. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre For The Arts. </ref>

== References ==

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-10T10:51:07Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* References */

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita ==
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

The Meru Temple is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara. The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.The Vimana Chhanda is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits. The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits. Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.. The Padma temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga. The shape of the Garuda temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas. The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka). The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave. The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits. The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits. The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret. The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis. The Simha Temple possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits. The Vritta temple is shaped like a circle. The Chatushkona temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles. As the name itself indicates, the Shodashri temple has a total of sixteen angles. The Ashtashri temple possesses eight angles.<ref>Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.</ref>

== विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana ==
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana affiliated to the Vishnu Purana . Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.<ref>Shah, Priyabala (1990) ''Shri Vishnudharmottara''. Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co </ref>

== मत्स्य पुराणम् || Matsya Purana ==
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.<ref>Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== अग्नि पुराणम् || Agni Purana ==
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.<ref>Agni Purana (2018) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

== समरान्गणसूत्रधार: || Samaranganasutradhara ==
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

== मयमतम् || Mayamatam ==
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

# Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof
# Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted part
# Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.<ref>Dagnes, Bruno (1994) Mayamatam: Treatise of Housing Architecture and Iconography. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre For The Arts. </ref>

== References ==

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-10T10:30:41Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) */

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita ==
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

The Meru Temple is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara. The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.The Vimana Chhanda is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits. The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits. Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.. The Padma temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga. The shape of the Garuda temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas. The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka). The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave. The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits. The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits. The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret. The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis. The Simha Temple possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits. The Vritta temple is shaped like a circle. The Chatushkona temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles. As the name itself indicates, the Shodashri temple has a total of sixteen angles. The Ashtashri temple possesses eight angles

== विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana ==
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana affiliated to the Vishnu Purana . Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

== मत्स्य पुराणम् || Matsya Purana ==
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

== अग्नि पुराणम् || Agni Purana ==
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

== समरान्गणसूत्रधार: || Samaranganasutradhara ==
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

== मयमतम् || Mayamatam ==
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

# Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof
# Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted part
# Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

== References ==
1. Bapat, Asawari (2018), ''Vastukaprashaste Deshe''. Pune: Aparanta. (Marathi)

2. ‘Jugnu’, Srikrishna and Sharma, Bhanwar Lal (trans. and ed.), Raja Bhoja,( 2011) Samaranganasutradhara, Volumes I and II. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.

3. Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press

4. Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-10T10:22:54Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) */

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता || Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita ==
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

The Meru Temple is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara. The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.The Vimana Chhanda is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits. The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits. Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.. The Padma temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga. The shape of the Garuda temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas. The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka). The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave. The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits. The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits. The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret. The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis. The Simha Temple possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits. The Vritta temple is shaped like a circle. The Chatushkona temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles. As the name itself indicates, the Shodashri temple has a total of sixteen angles. The Ashtashri temple possesses eight angles

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

=== Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) ===
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

1.Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

2. Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted parts

3. Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

== References ==
1. Bapat, Asawari (2018), ''Vastukaprashaste Deshe''. Pune: Aparanta. (Marathi)

2. ‘Jugnu’, Srikrishna and Sharma, Bhanwar Lal (trans. and ed.), Raja Bhoja,( 2011) Samaranganasutradhara, Volumes I and II. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.

3. Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press

4. Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-10T10:21:21Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

The whole spiritual ethos of Sanatana Dharma majorly revolves around temples. Temples are not just holy structures where people gather to worship a certain deity but are also considered the very abode of a given deity. The importance of temples in Sanatana Dharma is reaffirmed by the copious references to temples in Indic texts dating from the Gupta Period (4th century CE-6th century CE) onward. Some of these texts were based purely on architectural and spiritual aspects of temples while a few others like the Puranas also comprised chapters among other subjects pertaining to architecture in general and temple building in particular. The manuals on temple architecture cover almost every aspect of this and underline the structural as well as religious and philosophical dimensions of temples.

=== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

The Meru Temple is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara. The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.The Vimana Chhanda is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits. The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits. Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.. The Padma temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga. The shape of the Garuda temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas. The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka). The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave. The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits. The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits. The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret. The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis. The Simha Temple possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits. The Vritta temple is shaped like a circle. The Chatushkona temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles. As the name itself indicates, the Shodashri temple has a total of sixteen angles. The Ashtashri temple possesses eight angles

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

=== Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) ===
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

1.Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

2. Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted parts

3. Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

== References ==
1. Bapat, Asawari (2018), ''Vastukaprashaste Deshe''. Pune: Aparanta. (Marathi)

2. ‘Jugnu’, Srikrishna and Sharma, Bhanwar Lal (trans. and ed.), Raja Bhoja,( 2011) Samaranganasutradhara, Volumes I and II. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.

3. Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press

4. Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-09T14:30:07Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) */

=== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

The Meru Temple is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara. The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.The Vimana Chhanda is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits. The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits. Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.. The Padma temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga. The shape of the Garuda temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas. The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka). The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave. The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits. The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits. The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret. The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis. The Simha Temple possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits. The Vritta temple is shaped like a circle. The Chatushkona temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles. As the name itself indicates, the Shodashri temple has a total of sixteen angles. The Ashtashri temple possesses eight angles

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

=== Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) ===
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.
# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic.
# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

1.Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

2. Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted parts

3. Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

== References ==
1. Bapat, Asawari (2018), ''Vastukaprashaste Deshe''. Pune: Aparanta. (Marathi)

2. ‘Jugnu’, Srikrishna and Sharma, Bhanwar Lal (trans. and ed.), Raja Bhoja,( 2011) Samaranganasutradhara, Volumes I and II. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.

3. Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press

4. Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-09T14:25:47Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* परिचयः ॥ Introduction */

=== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

The Meru Temple is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara. The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.The Vimana Chhanda is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits. The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits. Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.. The Padma temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga. The shape of the Garuda temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas. The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka). The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave. The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits. The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits. The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret. The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis. The Simha Temple possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits. The Vritta temple is shaped like a circle. The Chatushkona temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles. As the name itself indicates, the Shodashri temple has a total of sixteen angles. The Ashtashri temple possesses eight angles

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011) Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

=== Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) ===
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

1. Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.

2. Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic

3. Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

1.Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

2. Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted parts

3. Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

== References ==
1. Bapat, Asawari (2018), ''Vastukaprashaste Deshe''. Pune: Aparanta. (Marathi)

2. ‘Jugnu’, Srikrishna and Sharma, Bhanwar Lal (trans. and ed.), Raja Bhoja,( 2011) Samaranganasutradhara, Volumes I and II. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.

3. Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press

4. Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-02T07:00:39Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) */

=== Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

The Meru Temple is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara. The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.The Vimana Chhanda is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits. The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits. Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.. The Padma temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga. The shape of the Garuda temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas. The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka). The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave. The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits. The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits. The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret. The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis. The Simha Temple possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits. The Vritta temple is shaped like a circle. The Chatushkona temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles. As the name itself indicates, the Shodashri temple has a total of sixteen angles. The Ashtashri temple possesses eight angles

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built.

=== Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) ===
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

1. Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.

2. Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic

3. Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

1.Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

2. Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted parts

3. Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

=== List of Reference ===
1. Bapat, Asawari (2018), ''Vastukaprashaste Deshe''. Pune: Aparanta. (Marathi)

2. ‘Jugnu’, Srikrishna and Sharma, Bhanwar Lal (trans. and ed.), Raja Bhoja,( 2011) Samaranganasutradhara, Volumes I and II. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.

3. Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press

4. Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969) India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira'''.''' New Delhi:Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Ltd.

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-11-02T06:55:24Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-10-07T07:07:05Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Mayamatam */

=== Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

==== 1 Meru ====
This is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).

==== 2. Mandara ====
The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikharas.

==== 3. Kailasa ====
The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.

==== 4. The Vimana Chhanda ====
This temple is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits

==== 5. Nandana ====
The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.

==== 6. Samudga ====
Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.

==== 7. Padma ====
This temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.

==== 8. Garuda ====
The shape of this temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.

==== 9. Nandivardhana ====
The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.

==== 10. Kunjara ====
The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).

==== 11. Guharaja ====
The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.

==== 12. Vrisha ====
The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.

==== 13. Hamsa ====
The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.

==== 14. Ghata ====
The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.

==== 15. Sarvatobhadra ====
The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.

==== 16. Simha ====
The Simha possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.

==== 17. Vritta ====
This temple is shaped like a circle.

==== 18. Chatushkona ====
This temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.

==== 19. Shodashri ====
As the name itself indicates, this temple has a total of sixteen angles.

==== 20. Ashtashri ====
This temple possesses eight angles

Temple types 17-20 have a dark interior and have only one storey and cupola. Only the Chatushkona has five shikharas.

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built.

=== Mayamatam (मयमतम् ) ===
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

1. Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.

2. Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic

3. Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

1.Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

2. Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted parts

3. Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

{{StubArticle}}

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-10-07T07:04:17Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Samaranganasutradhara */

=== Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

==== 1 Meru ====
This is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).

==== 2. Mandara ====
The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikharas.

==== 3. Kailasa ====
The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.

==== 4. The Vimana Chhanda ====
This temple is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits

==== 5. Nandana ====
The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.

==== 6. Samudga ====
Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.

==== 7. Padma ====
This temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.

==== 8. Garuda ====
The shape of this temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.

==== 9. Nandivardhana ====
The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.

==== 10. Kunjara ====
The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).

==== 11. Guharaja ====
The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.

==== 12. Vrisha ====
The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.

==== 13. Hamsa ====
The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.

==== 14. Ghata ====
The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.

==== 15. Sarvatobhadra ====
The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.

==== 16. Simha ====
The Simha possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.

==== 17. Vritta ====
This temple is shaped like a circle.

==== 18. Chatushkona ====
This temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.

==== 19. Shodashri ====
As the name itself indicates, this temple has a total of sixteen angles.

==== 20. Ashtashri ====
This temple possesses eight angles

Temple types 17-20 have a dark interior and have only one storey and cupola. Only the Chatushkona has five shikharas.

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built.

=== Mayamatam ===
The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise). This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19th Adhyaya contains the names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed. Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified. On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

1. Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.

2. Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic

3. Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic

In this text we find a new classification of buildings –

1.Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

2. Asanchita (female)-made of bricks or wood, has inaccessible vaulted parts

3. Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.

{{StubArticle}}

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-10-07T06:47:58Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) */

=== Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

==== 1 Meru ====
This is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).

==== 2. Mandara ====
The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikharas.

==== 3. Kailasa ====
The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.

==== 4. The Vimana Chhanda ====
This temple is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits

==== 5. Nandana ====
The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.

==== 6. Samudga ====
Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.

==== 7. Padma ====
This temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.

==== 8. Garuda ====
The shape of this temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.

==== 9. Nandivardhana ====
The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.

==== 10. Kunjara ====
The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).

==== 11. Guharaja ====
The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.

==== 12. Vrisha ====
The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.

==== 13. Hamsa ====
The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.

==== 14. Ghata ====
The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.

==== 15. Sarvatobhadra ====
The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.

==== 16. Simha ====
The Simha possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.

==== 17. Vritta ====
This temple is shaped like a circle.

==== 18. Chatushkona ====
This temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.

==== 19. Shodashri ====
As the name itself indicates, this temple has a total of sixteen angles.

==== 20. Ashtashri ====
This temple possesses eight angles

Temple types 17-20 have a dark interior and have only one storey and cupola. Only the Chatushkona has five shikharas.

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

=== Samaranganasutradhara ===
This text is dated to the 11th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty. The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple- Deva-dhishnya (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni) , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra). Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types. Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama. The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi. Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture. Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built.

{{StubArticle}}

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-22T06:54:46Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) */

=== Introduction ===
Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===
Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit. (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:

==== 1 Meru ====
This is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).

==== 2. Mandara ====
The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikharas.

==== 3. Kailasa ====
The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.

==== 4. The Vimana Chhanda ====
This temple is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits

==== 5. Nandana ====
The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.

==== 6. Samudga ====
Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.

==== 7. Padma ====
This temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.

==== 8. Garuda ====
The shape of this temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.

==== 9. Nandivardhana ====
The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.

==== 10. Kunjara ====
The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).

==== 11. Guharaja ====
The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.

==== 12. Vrisha ====
The Vrisha is a circular temple with a single shikhara. This temple measures twelve cubits.

==== 13. Hamsa ====
The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.

==== 14. Ghata ====
The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.

==== 15. Sarvatobhadra ====
The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.

==== 16. Simha ====
The Simha possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.

==== 17. Vritta ====
This temple is shaped like a circle.

==== 18. Chatushkona ====
This temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.

==== 19. Shodashri ====
As the name itself indicates, this temple has a total of sixteen angles.

==== 20. Ashtashri ====
This temple possesses eight angles

Temple types 17-20 have a dark interior and have only one storey and cupola. Only the Chatushkona has five shikharas.

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===
The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.

=== Matsya Purana (मत्स्य पुराणम् ) ===
The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows- Meru (100 spires, four doors, 16 bhumis), Mandara (12 bhumis), Kailasa (9 bhumis), Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis), Simha (shape of a lion), Mriga, Vimana (many spires, 8 bhumis), Chhandaka (8 bhumis), Chaturastra, Astastra, Shodashastra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhana (7 bhumis), Hamsa, Vrusha-fulfills all desires, Suvarnesha, Padmaka (3 bhumis), Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis), Sarvatobhadra (16 sides , many spires , associated with chitrashalas, 5 bhumis), Gaja (shape of an elephant , many chandrashalas) Mrigaraja ( many spires, 6 bhumis), Garuda (Spread out towards the rear, three chandrashalas, 7 bhumis) and Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka).The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are- Pushpaka, Pushpabhadra, Suvrata, Amruta Nandana, Kaushalya, Gajabhadra, Jayavaha, Shrivatsa, Vijaya, Shatrumardana, Sugriva, Harit, Shyamabhadra, Subhadra etc.

=== Agni Purana (अग्नि पुराणम्) ===
The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.

{{StubArticle}}

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-22T06:47:04Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-22T05:55:22Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-14T04:39:10Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-14T03:55:08Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-14T03:07:46Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-09T11:47:30Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-09-09T11:22:34Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-07-28T11:12:46Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* 20. Ashtashri */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-07-28T11:11:02Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* 6. Samudga */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-07-22T11:42:46Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-07-22T11:16:22Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-07-22T10:57:47Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Varahmihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-07-06T11:05:11Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Introduction */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-07-06T10:56:20Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* Introduction */

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-06-10T11:16:01Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

=== Introduction ===
Temples are truly the soul of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship date back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India.
{{StubArticle}}

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-06-10T11:14:36Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

Temples in Texts on Architecture (स्थापत्यशास्त्रेषु देवालयाः )

2022-06-10T10:47:01Z

Sneha Nagarkar: Created blank page

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-05-10T06:52:31Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple */

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according to it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are drawn. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth is considered the original vastu as it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.
[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]
[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple,Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the antarala.
[[File:DSCN0596.JPG|thumb|The Rekha and Pidha Deulas of the Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, c. 10th-11th centuries CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.
[[File:DSCN2062.JPG|thumb|Pushkarini, Ambarnath Shiva Temple, Maharashtra, mid 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==
<references />

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-05-09T05:24:38Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* References */

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are drawn. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth is considered the original vastu as it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.
[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]
[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple,Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the antarala.
[[File:DSCN0596.JPG|thumb|The Rekha and Pidha Deulas of the Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, c. 10th-11th centuries CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.
[[File:DSCN2062.JPG|thumb|Pushkarini, Ambarnath Shiva Temple, Maharashtra, mid 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==
<references />

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-05-09T05:24:12Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* References */

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are drawn. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth is considered the original vastu as it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.
[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]
[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple,Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the antarala.
[[File:DSCN0596.JPG|thumb|The Rekha and Pidha Deulas of the Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, c. 10th-11th centuries CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.
[[File:DSCN2062.JPG|thumb|Pushkarini, Ambarnath Shiva Temple, Maharashtra, mid 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==
<references /><ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5riUu7Yk6ek</ref>

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-20T09:19:05Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are drawn. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth is considered the original vastu as it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.
[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]
[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple,Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the antarala.
[[File:DSCN0596.JPG|thumb|The Rekha and Pidha Deulas of the Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, c. 10th-11th centuries CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.
[[File:DSCN2062.JPG|thumb|Pushkarini, Ambarnath Shiva Temple, Maharashtra, mid 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-20T09:14:32Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are drawn. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth is considered the original vastu as it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.
[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]
[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple,Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the antarala.
[[File:DSCN0596.JPG|thumb|The Rekha and Pidha Deulas of the Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, c. 10th-11th centuries CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

File:DSCN0596.JPG

2022-04-20T09:10:49Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-20T09:08:38Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are drawn. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth is considered the original vastu as it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.
[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]
[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple,Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the antarala.

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-20T09:05:00Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala */

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are drawn. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth is considered the original vastu as it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the antarala.

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-20T08:11:28Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod and considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also with respect to stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. All of them have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti of the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edifice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represents a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for the Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the Mauryan Period (4th-2nd century BCE) (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are draw. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth considered the original vastu it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vaastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vaastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vaastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vaastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vaastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|Sun Temple, Modhera, 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple, Thanjavur, 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the anatarala.

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

File:DSCN2062.JPG

2022-04-20T07:29:55Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-20T07:28:27Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a Tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti or the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edfice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represent a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the early historical period (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were not structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are draw. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth considered the original vastu it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vaastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vaastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vaastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vaastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vaastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

[[File:DSCN0180.JPG|thumb|Sun Temple, Modhera, 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple, Thanjavur, 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the anatarala.

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

File:DSCN0180.JPG

2022-04-20T07:19:15Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-20T07:17:20Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a Tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti or the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edfice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represent a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the early historical period (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were not structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are draw. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth considered the original vastu it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vaastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vaastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vaastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vaastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vaastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

[[File:100 3446.JPG|thumb|The Brihadishvara Temple, Thanjavur, 11th century CE Photo Copyright: Sneha Nagarkar ]]

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the anatarala.

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

File:100 3446.JPG

2022-04-20T07:04:06Z

Sneha Nagarkar:

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-15T05:46:51Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini */

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a Tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti or the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edfice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represent a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the early historical period (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were not structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are draw. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth considered the original vastu it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vaastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vaastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vaastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vaastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vaastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the anatarala.

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temples give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==

The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

2022-04-15T05:44:24Z

Sneha Nagarkar: /* ध्वजस्तंभः || Dhvaja Stambha */

=== परिचयः || Introduction ===
The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]]<nowiki/>s and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] had a very highly developed religious organization. The [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajna]] Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities<ref>Swami Harshananda (2007), All About Hindu Temples, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math </ref>. Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a Tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana images should be installed in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

=== संज्ञाः || Nomenclatures of the Temple ===
The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

=== देवालयस्य उत्पतिः || Origins of the Temple ===
The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti or the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edfice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represent a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the early historical period (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were not structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.

=== वास्तुपुरुषमण्डलम् || The Vastupurushamandala ===
The Hindu Temple is built on the principle of Vastupurusamandala. The concept of Vastupurushamandala directs the ground plan of the temple and the site where the temple is planned to be built. The Vastupurushamandala is drawn on the ground before the commencement of the construction of the temple. The Vastupurushamandala is square in shape and serves as a documentation of an architectural ritual. The accurate drawing of the Vastupurushamandala is not only the opening step in the building of the Hindu Temple but also the first stage in the science of architecture or Sthapatya Shastra. The Vastupurushamandala is essentially a square and this square is called the Vastupurusamandala. The square is further divided into sixty four compartments and diagonals are draw. Vastu is to be understood as the site in which vastu or the physical existence dwells and therefore it is called vastu.

Bhu or earth considered the original vastu it underlies all existence. Prithvi as one of the Pancha Mahabhutas and as the goddess Bhu Devi provides her surface to construct the temple. According to Stella Kramrisch, it i.e. Bhumi is “the ground for architectural ritual.”<ref name=":0">Kramrisch Stella (1946), The Hindu Temple, Volume I, Calcutta; University of Calcutta</ref>. Bhumi is the place where the mortals and immortals dwell. Four kinds of spaces have been designated by the ancient Sthapatyashastrakaras as Vastu:

1. भूमिः (Bhumi)- the ground

2. प्रासादः (Prasada) -Palace or Temple

3. यानम् (Yana)- Conveyance

4. शयनम् (Shayana)- Couch

Bhu or the earth is the fundamental Vastu as it is the first of the Pancha Mahabhutas and support of all animate and inanimate objects. Those which emanate from the earth like the Prasadas are the Vastu which are abodes or planned sites. They are also termed as Vastu as they are things which have a concrete existence and established on Vastu (a real existing thing). Vaastu is fundamentally the planned site of a structure. In most cases, the Vaastu is square in shape and its complete name is the Vaastupurushamandala. This term is composed of three words- Vaastu, Purusha and Mandala. Vaastu, as Stella Kramrisch puts it, "is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha."<ref name=":0" /> . The image of the Purusha or Cosmic Man is the same and equivalent to the planned site. Purusha is the Cosmic Man- the point of origin for the entire creation. The Purusha is the instrumental cause (Nimitta Kaarana) of all existence and so is the Purusha the material cause of all existence and all the constituents of creation are made from his substance. The plan of the building or temple resembles the Cosmic Man who is none other than the Supreme One (Uttama Purusha). Mandala denotes any closed polygon. The form of the Vastupurushamandala is square. The Vastupurushamandala underlies all planned Hindu architectural structures. The site plan, ground plan as well as the horizontal and vertical sections of a Hindu structure are monitored by the Vastupurushamandala. The site plan of the temple is prepared in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala.

As per the injunctions given in the Mayamatam the shape of the Vastu meant for Devatas and Brahmanas should be square. The square is the basic form of Indian architecture and implies a certain sense of ordering and limiting. The circle represents the movement of life. Square and circular shapes are both contained in the Vaidika Fire Altar and Agni which are inseparable.

The drawing of the square Vastupurushamandala before the commencement of the temple architectural activity was essential. It was mandatory for an architect to be fully aware about the symbolism and actual drawing of the Vastupurushamandala. All traditional texts on Indian Architecture elaborate upon the Vastupurushamandala. The 11th century CE was a period when some of the loftiest Hindu Temples like the Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho as well as the Sun Temple at Modhera were constructed. By this time, the drawing of the Vastupurushamandala on the site where the temple was to be built had become a rule. Whether it was the stretching of the chord to make the square or drawing the lines of the diagram, each step in the procedure was a ritual with its concomitant sacredness. These rites support the building in a similar manner as the actual physical foundation of the temple would support it.

=== देवालयस्य मुख्य - अङ्गानि || Essential Components of a Temple ===

==== गर्भगृहम् || Garbhagriha ====
The most integral and core part of a temple is the sanctum or garbhagriha which houses the image of the deity. It is generally square in shape and has no openings in the form of doors and windows except for its entrance door in the front. The garbhagriha is a dark chamber except for the light that trickles through the front door and the light of lamp lit near the image of the deity. The principal and loftiest shikhara of the temple is constructed above the garbhagriha.

==== प्रदक्षिणापथ:|| Pradakshinapatha ====
This is the circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. Not all temples have the pradakshinapatha. A temple with a pradakshinapatha is called a 'sandhara' type of a temple and a temple where the pradakshinapatha is absent is known as a 'nirandhara' type of a temple. A temple could also have an outer circumambulatory path.

==== अन्तराल:|| Antarala ====
The Antarala is a passage between the mukhamandapa and garbhagriha. The older temples generally are devoid of the anatarala.

==== मण्डपः || Mandapas ====
The Mukhamandapa is a mandapa or hall which is closest to the garbhagriha. It is also known as the ardha-mandapa. After the mukhamandapa comes the mandapa which is a large hall. The mandapa at times is also referred to as the Navaranga or Nritta- Mandapa where musical and dance performances are held as a part of the devotional service to the deity enshrined in the temple. The mandapa is also the place where religious discourses and recitation of texts like the two Itihasas and Puranas are conducted. In the Kalinga Style of Temples belonging to the land of Odisha the mandapas are known as 'Jagamohana' or 'Pidha Deulas' which have pyramidal roofs. In the case of North Indian Temples which are also known by the nomenclature 'Nagara Prasadas' the roofs over the mandapas are totally distinct from the shikhara over the garbhagriha. This applies well to the Kalinga Style of Temples of Odisha as well.

==== ध्वजस्तम्भः || Dhvaja Stambha ====
The practice of erecting Dhvaja Stambhas before the temple has an antiquity of at least 2200 years before present. One of the earliest Dhvaja Stambhas in India was erected at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh by a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus who declared himself to be a Bhagavata or a devotee of Bhagavat Vasudeva-Krishna and erected the Garuda Dhvaja Stambha in the honour of the God. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva will have a dhvaja stambha or flag post with the image of his mount Nandi at the pinnacle whereas a dhavaja stambha surmounted with an image of Garuda would be placed before a Vaishnava temple. A Shakta or Devi shrine would be considered complete after a dhavaja stambha with an image of a lion at its peak would be constructed in its precincts. A dhvaja stambha is a part of the paraphernalia associated with a king and the deity enshrined in the temple is perceived as the 'King of kings'. The general practice is that the image of the mount of the deity who is worshipped in a given temple is place atop the dhvaja stambha. The dhvaja stambhas could be made out of stone or metals like copper.

==== प्राकार: || The Prakara Wall ====
Temples usually have a high wall enclosing its precincts. This wall is known has 'prakara' and it almost resembles a fortification wall. Sometimes a temple, depending upon its area and significance may have more than one prakara wall.The prakara wall is intercepted by gateways or gopurams (in the case of South Indian Temples) in the cardinal directions and in most cases there will be one gateway which would serve as the principal one. In the ancient times, shrines would be generally surrounded by a stone or wooden railing. In South Indian Shaiva temples, the prakara wall would be embellished will images of Nandi.

==== पुष्करिणी || Pushkarini ====
The word 'Pushkarni' is used to signify a water tank within the premises of a temple. Inscriptions dating from the Kushana Period (1st century CE-3rd century CE) from Mathura allude to the construction of tanks near shrines. It became a common practice from the early medieval period to build tanks or pushkarnis within the area of the temple. The water from the temple tanks would be used in various kinds of rituals associated with the temples. The Pushkarnis in temples of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram and Goddess Meenakshi in Madurai are specially renowned. Canonical texts pertaining to temple give clear injunctions about the requirement of water bodies -natural or artificial in the vicinity of temples.

== References ==