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Yama Nachiketa - Veda Rahasyam (यम नचिकेत - वेद रहस्यम्)

2017-09-18T10:04:34Z

P16232:

== The destination of the atma after death ==
Yamaraj tells Nachiketa that he will reveal the eternal secret of the Vedas to him. Even though living entity having eternal association of Paramatma, then how is that Jiva falls into so many species of life? Yamaraja answers this question: some people may assume this is the act of destiny. Or some may blame the paramatma for pushing jiva into different forms of life. Therefore Yamaraja discusses the role of Paramatma for jiva as an indwelling supersoul, and its impact on jiva’s rise and fall. Yamaraja answers all these questions in next few mantras. (Taittiriya upanishada 2.2.6).

== Karma and rebirth ==
What happens to jiva after death? Not all jivas have the same result, different people are born into different kinds of background and bodies according to their karma, their ||upasana ( kind of worship). Some will accept the body of (sthavara)immovable body, but this is not Paramatma’s doing. According to the philosophy of ||karma siddhanta (), all living entities have the current life based on their karma<blockquote>"''yatha karma yathashrutam ||''"</blockquote>But through all these journeys the Paramatma travels with the jivatma.

== Who is ||Lokasrushta (the creator of the cosmos)? ==
Even though Paramatma is sleeping in yoga nidra (sleeping) but by his power he makes it happen thorugh the law of karma, while conceiving different experiences by His inconceivable power even in HIs yoga nidra. He is nectar personified, addressed as Brahma and the supreme being. (Not everyone gets same kind of dream, Dreams are connected to everyday activities, emotions and thought processes are based upon it. it creates pattern of happiness and distress. Just because one does not understand the meaning of dreams, it doesn't mean that they're not part of bigger life. They have meaning in a bigger life cycle. The lord while understanding the different desires of jiva, creates dreams simultaneously based upon every individual’s experiences. But still He remains the neutral person as Paramatama in the heart of all Jivas. This is the great quality of God. , Sandhey Srusthi raha hi 3.2.1 taiitriya

== The glory of Bhagwan who resides in everybody’s heart ==
<blockquote>"''Sarva bhutantaraatma vaibhava ||''"</blockquote>It may be difficult to believe, that Paramatma resides in every one’s heart, and how could he has so many forms in so many jivas?

Yama Deva answers the above questions with three analogies;
# '''Agni'''- The all-pervading Agni is ultimately is one in his foundational character. Even though agni is there in the different planets and all multifarious form are manifestation of that same one agni. Agni is the symbol of Teja (grandeur). One can see only because of that teja. The specific form and shape of every ingredient is attributed to Agni. However, the form can change because of the interference of other elements. Similarly, Parmatma is all pervading but based on the destination of the living entity, their Karma, form and qualities, the different gradations or forms happen. But Paramatma is one.
# '''Air:''' Air is there in everything but differences arise depending on where & how it flows, similarly jivas have different body based on their Karma.
# '''Sun god''': He is the eyes of entire cosmic world, yet appears differently to different people based on their limited vision. So also just like there is one sun, While Parmatma dwells in all living entities, he is not bound by the misery of the person that He is residing in. Although everything is under His control, He is not controlled by them. Different forms are happening in nature because of his ||Sankalpa (resolution). The only way to attain eternal happiness is to have the courage to see him within. Other than such vision no one else experiences happiness.

== He is the eternal amongst the eternal ==
The one who can see the unique supreme Paramatma in the heart of living entities, fulfilling all their desires according to their karma perennially, only they will achieve happiness ( taittiriya 2.2.13).

The content of Yamaraja’s discourse with Nachiketa until now deals with the identity of the Paramatma and jivatma. While narrating about their relationship Yamaraja says many times “etaidvaitat, Yamarja is answering to question of Nachiketa about the destination of jiva after fall of the body. Yamaraja ask nachiketa to hear attentively. While listening to such discussion nachiketa raises important question to Yamaraja during the discussion of the eternal nature of happiness,

== Nachiketa’s last question ==
O my dear teacher, you speak of eternal happiness tade’tad as direted by the gnyanis yet it remains elusive to people like us.

How do I understand by being in the world. “

Does the highest happiness illuminate? And how much is the illumination clear? Or is it without any illumination?

== The nature of happiness of moksha ==
Vedantas explain about the concept of moksha (eternal happiness). Moksha is the highest destination and land of light, Vishnuloka or Vishnupada. It also explains that the nature of happiness here is not the same as in the material world. In this world for happiness there has to be connection with matter (sapekshita). For example, the Sun god gives light that is the root of the satisfaction for all living entities. It is pleasing to the eye, the body and the stomach. The Sun manifested in many different ways. To experience happiness in all kinds of situations- rain, Crops, heat, cold, time, seasons and with all living beings, the Sun is very important. In the absence of the sun at night, the Moon is visible. If the Moon is not seen, then we see the stars. When the stars are not in the sky, then there is electricity. If electricity is not there, there is fire. Therefore the light is manifest in different forms that gives rise to happiness. Therefore unless it is defined what is the source of eternal happiness it is not possible to exactly say the nature of happiness of this world. Nachiketa’s final question is concerned with this eternal happiness.

While trying to glorify the comparative happiness between human and spiritual, Shrutis begin with “te ye shatam, and got exhausted describing the Brahamananda. The Taittriya Upanishad says it as, yatho vacho nivartante. It says that Brahma ananda is indescribable.

Nachiketa who has never been to such place as parama pada, is asking question to Yamaraja and Yamaraja’s answer is very extraordinary.

Oh Nachiketa! The light (Jyothi) which is in your mind, the sun, the moon, the stars, fire etc. are all dependent light, they are not source but effect ||prakartha ( mundane) light with a beginning and an end. However there is another light that is the source of the light of all the material planet. This light is inexhaustible, its flame burns eternally. The light of other material cannot stand to this light, such is the power of this light. As this light is eternal, sometimes the relative light in darkness has the power to give light. The Parmatma illuminates as light being source of all life. The paramapada,which is eternal has the power to give appropriate happiness according to parama jyoti.<blockquote>"''tameva bhantam anubhati sarvam tasya bhasa sarvam idam vibhati ||''"</blockquote>Vyasadeva explaines jyoti darshanatah (1.3.41) as Paramatma, this mantra comes in between two episodes. The same mantra is there in the atharva shaka in mundaka shruti (2.2.11) and the same incident is more clearly mentioned there. Wherever it is addressed as Paramjyoti in other words as light but it that parmatama, Which is extraordinary. Paramjyoti rupa sampadya (chandogya 8.12.2). <blockquote>"''Tam deva jyoti sham jyotihi ayoryho upasate amrutam (brhada4.4.16)'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"''atha yadatha paro divo jyothih dipyate (chah 3.13.7)'' "</blockquote>etc, one can see many examples here. Therefore according to vyasadeva, it is addressing paramatma as “Jyoti, and associatoin with him is Moksha. <blockquote>"''Soshnute saravahan Kaman saha bramhana vipashchita(taittriya sruti).'' "</blockquote>In the brahma sutras it is said, <blockquote>"''jyothih charanabidanata (1.1.25)''"</blockquote>To summarize, there is nothing higher than the bhagavan, in all illuminating things or people. One sees comleteness of “Dva, in him. The Paramatama who is possessing divine form, which is full of light is Himself, is Paramapada, Vaikuntha is defined as land of illumination( Vishnu sahsranama 406). The description of such mantras is the purpose of this mantra.

Here Yamaraja’s instruction has come to come to the description of highest destination(paramapada). Yamaraja felt Nachiketa did not completely understood, therefore Yamaraja felt to explain in detail.

== The upside down Banyan tree( Ashwatha vriksha) ==
The entire cosmos is likened to one Banyan tree( Ashwatha tree) Nashwopi, sthasyati, ithyashvathaha. The tree is described as the tree that is changing continuously and has no definite form. The root of the tree is spread upwards and the branches and leaves grow downwards. That means when the tree grows( samsara tree) everything; the twig, branches, flowers and fruits go away from the roots, similarly jiva becomes distanced from paramatma.

Another surprising thing about this tree is, just like the ahswatha tree’s roots takes away from the tree, similarly the JIva, thinks himself to be independent and himself and the samsara to be eternal and tries to settle in this world. The foundation of this tree is eternal, which is represented by Paramatma. This is described in Bhagavad gita 15th chapter 1st 3slokas. Taittiriya aranyaka also describes this(1-11-5).

This tree is like a mesh of karmic reaction from which it is difficult to come out. The living entity is like an ant who gets stuck in this tree and does not even realize that the tree is upside down. Therefore most of the time living entity does not understand whether he is going close to Paramatama(the root) or away from the tree. What to speak that, just because they do not see the root of the tree they deny the existence of the root( paramatama) and jump from one branch to other branch. Every planet have taken shelter of this tree( material cosmos) and there is no other place where creation is existing. When one sees the root of the tree, then one can see Paramatama. Who is is personification of light and brahman. This is how the jnani see it. Every one beginning from Brahma and insignificant ants are residing in this tree, and they have no other shelter.

'''Because this tree looks upside down, there is a natural fear of it falling. But it is misplaced. The Shruti says that the tree is very strong and this is explained in the chandyogya upanishad (6.8.4)<blockquote>"''||Sanmulaha sadayatanaha sat pratishthitaha''"</blockquote>Yet there are still some who do not believe in the strength of the tree, and who are they? Those who do not have the trust.

Those who do not believe in the tree, one who is trying to usurp the root of the tree and trying to water the tree( in other words complicate material life) will experience this tree to be scary. This is the subject matter of next mantra.

== Sarva prana ==
Those who accept Paramatma as the life force and the sustainer of all that is there in the cosmos and take refuge in him and are controlled by him. The entire cosmos is afraid of the Bhagavan fearing his thunderbolt, one who understand this they achieve armutattva( immortality).

== bhayakrita bhaya nashana- The giver and the destroyer of fear. ==
This is from the Vishnu sahasranama, where Bhagawan is called both the bhayakrita (giver of fear) and bhaya nashana (destroyes the fear). This is an eternal opinion opinion. The Taittriya Upanishad (2.3.3) explains that the lord is anandamaya () yet in the next verse it says<blockquote>"''||Bhishasmat vatah pavate''"</blockquote>And it also says <blockquote>"''Bhayad asya agni sthapati bhayattapati suryah''"</blockquote><blockquote>"''Bhayadindraschya vayuschyah mrtyur dhavati panchmah( taiitriya 2-3-3)''"</blockquote><blockquote>"''||etasyavaaksharasya sane gargi surya chandrasau vidhrishatauttishata brahmasutra''"</blockquote>In the brihanaranyaka Upanishad (1.3.40.), Yajnyavalkya tells Gargi says akampanat that all the devatas ||Agni, ||vayu, ||Surya, Yama etc are not independent but operate under the instruction of Bhagawan. They are sheltered and regulated by Bhagawan. Paramatma is the natural discipliner. (brahma sutras the import of Kampanat( fear) has been similarly applied. (1.3.40)

== Why do they fall? ==
<blockquote>"''"Those who do not understand the secret that the living being are under the control of Ishvara, such person falls into the cycle of repeated birth and death in many planetary system, according to one’s karma, this is for certain. This is the path of coming to the upside down tree. Therefore it is imperative that one attains brahma jnana." (Taittirya 2.3.4).''"</blockquote>It is difficult! To see anything in dark moon night, similarly to see Paramatma, when one is shrouded in ignorance is also not possible. When one looks in the mirror, the right vision becomes the left vison and vice versa. Similarly, in ||samsara (material world) our position is inverted and incoherent, this is the subject of ||karmaloka (land of action). Those who do not have ||brahma gyan, for them even if by some chance they go to ||Pitruloka (land of the ancestors), it is difficult to get brahmajnan there. This is because in the dream state, the experiences are dull and in the waking state, even though the experiences maybe clear it is not easy to get clarifications for one’s doubts, therefore the material world it is not favorable place to acquire the knowledge. At the same time, other than martya loka(material world) no other planet can give the experience of Paramatma. The Gandharva loka is not the place for ||lok sadhana ( spiritual practices) as it is like seeing the reflection in the water, fleeting and unrealistic. Similarly, in Brahmaloka (the land of Chatur bhuj Brahma) it is like the distinction between the sun and shadow. Therefore only the land of of human beings is the most suitable place for acquiring knowledge, and what is that knowledge, that will be discussed now.

== Iha and Para from here to there- the steps ==
From now on Yamaraja explains the vedanta as the part of journey of sadhana, in brief. In the world the opposite exist in isolation rather in integration. For eg;- birth and death appear to be contradictory. This is how the senses perceive.

Those who see through the eyes of knowledge, see everything in relationship with Paramatma. They know that life and death are not reality, such wise persons have no misery. The ||indriyas (senses) do not give knowledge automatically. Therefore the mind is superior to senses and higher than the mind is ||buddhi (intelligence) and higher than the intelligence is the living entity itself. Higher than the human being is ||avyakta tatva ( elements ) the prkriti(nature), because it can bind the living entity or help jiva to achieve liberation. But there is some one higher than jiva and prikriti, that is Paramatma. Those who take shelter of paramatama, the prikriti will not bind. This is understanding one has to achieve. <blockquote>"''Indriyabhya param mano manas sattvam uttamam''"</blockquote><blockquote>"''sattvadadhi mahanatma mahato avyaktam''"</blockquote><blockquote>"''uttamam avyaktatu parah purushah vyapakah alinga evaachah''"</blockquote><blockquote>"''yam jnatva muchyate jantu amrutattvam cha gacchati ( Taittiriya 1-3-7.8)''"</blockquote>Here the distinction between the indriyas, mind, intelligence and the jiva, the living entity is described as the word ‘param. but there could be one doubt – Param means superior, does it mean that jivatma is inferior to nature( prakriti)?

In this case Para doesn’t mean that it is superior. Para here specifically means to influence or to dominate.<blockquote>"''||indriyebhyaha paraayahartha purushanna param kinchita|| (1.3.10 and 1.3.11).''"</blockquote>In this mantra para should be taken as the above definition. In the Bhagavad Gita (3.42) also Krishna speaks<blockquote>"''||indriyani paranyahur indriyebhyah param manah manasas tu para buddhir yobuddheh paratas tu sah||''"</blockquote>Here the word saha is used for buddhi. Who is this buddhi? In this episode of the Bhagavad Gita sloka Arujna raises this question,<blockquote>"''..athahakeno… baladhikaha niyojitahs?''"</blockquote>What impels one to commit a sin even though he doesn’t want to, where is that desire situated in our heart? Krishna answered – kama yesha krodha yesha…. He says that the lust and greed for power is great. It is like the smoke that covers the fire or the dust that covers the reflection of the mirror or the embryo that covers the living entity.<blockquote>"''Indriyani mano buddhir asyadhisthanam ucyate etairvimohayaty esa jnanam avrtya dehinam (BG 3.40).''"</blockquote>The Senses, mind and buddhi are the dwelling place of kama (desire) and krodha (anger). Here param or para means resting, every element rests on the previous elements, therefore all different position in the body is the resting place for kama(lust), therefore they are the cause of living entity’s down fall. One who is desirous of elevation of oneself should first conquer kama. <blockquote>"''Buddheh param shatru jahi mahabaho''"</blockquote>In the beginning and middle of this episode, the enemy kama is mentioned therefore it is pertinent that it is there everywhere in this episode.

'''Instead of Kama, the Lord should reside in us, but unfortunately for many kama is worshipable. The instruction is that if one wants to have the darshan of ||Bhagawan, who is above everything, then kama has to be controlled, because Bhagavan cannot be perceived by the gross senses.

This Paramapurusha is ||vyapak(all-pervasive). Earlier it was noted,<blockquote>"''drushyatetu agraya buddhaya…''"</blockquote>He can only be achieved by the purified intelligence, not by the senses, and such person achieves amritattva(immortality)

One cannot see Ishwara from outside, he cannot be seen from external eyes. Then how does one see Him? it is explained ||hrida , Manisha, manasa, adikrlapta (2.3.9) He can only be understood or seen by heartfelt knowledge (preeti roopapanna jnana), <blockquote>"''Bhatyatu ananyaya sakyaya bhakta ca drityaca samahitatma ||''"</blockquote>This is the explanation by Vyasadev.

== The process of Vaidika Yoga (the process of the vedic path) ==
The mind which is matured with deep knowledge and devotion, this can be made possible by Yoga, The individual is only able to attain Brahmagyan when the pancha indriyas become intrinsic to the mind and are in control in such a way that that the intelligence does not become wayward. This will free him from getting lost in transient pleasures. Such a person attains perfection. The knower of yoga say Steadying the mind and controlling the senses is called Yoga, where the yogi is vigilant. As the process of yoga is difficult the Yogi can harm himself, this is corroborated in the Bhagavatam in Bharata’s story in 5th canto.

This yogi who is steady in yoga dharana( established in yoga) will experience divine wisdom of Lord which is full of affection to the supreme and which is beyond the senses. How does he get the realization of Bhagavaan? The answer is that it is not possible to experience Ishwara through our eyes,words or ears. There is no other way other than saying He exists, other than what can one who has seen him say?

== What is aastikya or Theism? ==
<blockquote>"Aastiti bhruvatah anyatra katham tat upalabhyate"</blockquote><blockquote>"''Ashtitye upalabdha vyastath bhavane cho bhayahoh''"</blockquote><blockquote>"''astiteyi o phalalabdhacha tattava bhavah praseedati||''"</blockquote>Exact translation : One who sees God can claim that he has seen God. However through Vedanta sravana (), indirectly one can experience that He is there. When the saadhaka sees Bhagawan by his own experience then the tattva (philosophy) turns into bhava. This makes the saadhaka very happy. Therefore one who can say with great conviction aasti (means that He is there) with his heart without distraction from such understanding he is actual aastika.

Yamaraja used aasti three times, God exists, God exists, God exists. This displays tremendous conviction of Bhagawan’s existence. This is the root of all the Vedas – ||paramaastika bhava (with the emotion of conviction in Ishvara’s existence). Nachiketa had enquired whether Bhagawan exist in the perfection stage of jiva. Yama had spoken about the eternal nature of jiva, now he concludes by saying that Isvara does exist. In this way he answers the third question of Nachiketa. As the yogis experience,<blockquote>"''tadekanubhava tadeka priayah pari poornam bhagavantam vishadatamanubhavena nirantam anubhuya''"</blockquote>is it possible to measure music in meter and liter? Similarly, if someone asks, about the nature of experience Ishvara, then he has to be told, “better you experience. Only in such understanding the knowledge of shastra reaches its perfection. Without such understanding the sastra knowledge is useless, when shastra and experience of Ishvara are harmonized that is called as “Vaidhik yoga.

== Moksha sukha(bliss in moksha) ==
This is the summum bonum (highest good) of yoga. The darshan (vision) of Paramatama removes all the ||kaamna (desires) or dissolves them. That is the time the ||martya (the mortal) becomes immortal or nector personified. Despite being a part of samsara (the material world), the samasara gives us an opportunity for brahma prapti (attaining Brahman) as the facility for upasana (worship). Notably, Moksha cannot happen without transcending this samsara. The sense of hopelessness should be given up as because one can attain moksha while being a part of this world. A great poet of South India said, “esa beku iddu jayesa beku (while being here we have to swim across). The person who has seen God, that yogi’s heart which had many knots get automatically untied, this is moksha. Beyond this here can be no more explanations on the process of attaining Moksha;<blockquote>"''||Etaavadhi anushasnam||''"</blockquote>One can explain the steps towards मोक्ष||moksha but the process of moksha has to be experienced by the individual himself and cannot be explained through words.

== Archaradi marg gamana ==
There is a land which is beyond this world and to reach there there is also a path. As in the heart there are many veins, there is one ||naadi (vein) called the Sushumna that goes up to the neck. The living entity who goes through the yoga marga has to go through this naadi and then he becomes immortal. The other veins are the different ways of returning to the samsara. The ||the archaradi marga (higher path) is the path of achieving Vishnupada, that is moksha. And those who are desirous of this ||mumukshu (), the Lord Himself who is situated in the highest abode as well as in our hearts (antaratma), who is ||angustamatra (thumb size), is very close to situated to jiva. Parmatma himself is the solution in attaining Moksha. One should experience Him through wisdom. The relationship between the Jivatma and Parmatma is explained through the knot in the grass and the root of that grass. The jivatma is like the grass and the root of that grass is the Parmatma. One has to discreetly separate them, with great conviction to understand their identity. Parmatma Himself is the source for all perfection. ||tam vidhyata shukram amritam tam vidyata shukram amrutamiti

== The end of instruction ==
Nachiketa heard with deep concentration as Yamadeva concluded his instruction. He received it with great humility, the Brahmavidya that was integrated with the process of yoga. After transcending death, Nachiketa assimilated the knowledge and he attained brahma prapti. Those who follow Nachiketa’s path are also assured of Brahma prapti.

== Upa Samhara – conclusion ==
Nachiketa was a ||vidya kama (seeker of knowledge). He was successful in quenching his thirst for knowledge. This is the conclusion of the Taittriya Upanishad about this story.

Unfortunately, in modern researchers do not understand the profundity of the story of Nachiketa. They wish to know details of the story with ludicrous questions;
* how many teeth were there in Nachiketa’s the mouth or how many hairs were there on his head?
* Where was his ashram?
* When did he come back from the mrityuloka, the date?
* What is the proof that he went there?
* Is Yamadeva a fictional or factual character?
* How do we know that all that is spoken in the Upanishad is actual truth, etc?
'''These are ordinary questions that stem from an ordinary and suspicious mind who is only interested in looking at things from the modern historical perspective, a legacy of the West. They neither understand the import of our Upanishads nor value it.
* What is history?
* Who decides what is history and what are the events that needs to be put down as history?
* What is the barometer to decide what should be selected?
* Who decides what is important and what is selected to be depicted will be based on that individual or group's perspective? The so called intelligent people considered such questions as relevant. They believe that this will give rise to understanding of history in a sensitive manner and throws some light on the past.
Whatever one is suppose to understand should be understood based the way the upanishada is explained here. What doe mean by narratives? If one says whatever happened is history, then who will write everything? Whatever has been selected as part of history then who decides what will go as history? It all depends upon the attitude and the mentality of the compilers. If the compiler is not narrow and small minded then he or she has to see from the broader perspective. When seen with such perspective then one will understand what to learn from the story of Nachiketa.

The main concept that comes through this narrative is Nachiketa’s passionate desire of gaining ||Vidya (knowledge), his faith (shraddha), his tapas ( austerity), his Nishta (resolve), his realizations and spiritual wisdom. This is the narratives one has to gain, And anything that portrays Indian Itihasa (history) is irrelevant. This is the understanding of Narratives from indian mind.

While real intellectuals accepted this, the nineteenth century saw the advent of self-styled historians who depicted inaccurately our history. They claimed that history is objective and beyond that it is meaningless events or series of events. Is that really possible and what is the point and utility of such history, that they call it as pure history? Such assumption is born in the brains of the brainless. An example of deceit and perfidy is explained by Dr. A. N. Whitehead The notions of historians of history devoid of aesthetics prejudice, of history devoid of any reliance on metaphysical principles and cosmological generalization and is mostly a figment of the imagination (adventures of ideas, page 12).

It is mandatory that to understand the essential meaning of the Vedas, one must understand the language and the science of the Vedas, know its constructs along with and understanding of the historical concepts and aesthetic sense. Without this even people like Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakar Mishra, though they were great scholars, purva mimasaka, but were caught in the superficialities, and what to speak of people like Max Muller who did not understand the essential meaning of vedas? Even worse are those who walked on the path of Max muller’s so called critical thinking?

Recently Widginstin and other scholars who are linguists, following the concept of logical positivism. Following such methods, our own Indian scholars, in the name of reading the vedas were slandering it. What Vedas will they understand? Notably, even Ravana wrote commentary on the Vedas, fortunately it is not available. A glimpse of his writings can be perceived in the Western historians writings on India. As one English poet says little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Such treacherous people should choose other ways to fame and the author says should not touch and defile the sacred Vedas as this would be beneficial to all.

Unfortunately, due to takeover of our education system and writing our history by the British, the narrative available to our scholars was what the Indologists decided. Post-colonisation, due to Macaulay’s education systems our scholars have been denied access to the primary sources and have to rely on western interpretation. Consequently, they criticised the Vedic concepts as they did not understand the deeper meaning of our scriptures.

Shvetaketu (श्वेतकेतुः)

2017-09-14T06:50:15Z

P16232: /* The Five Questions */

श्वेतकेतु || Shvetaketu, the son of [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] (Aruneya or son of [[अरुणा | Aruna]]) was a [[ब्राह्मण |Brahmana]] and the grandson of sage [[Aruni]]. He represents the quintessential seeker of knowledge. The [[Upanishad]]s entail the journey of Shvetaketu from ignorance to knowledge of the self and truth (''sat'').

== About Shvetaketu ==
Smritis refer to Shvetaketu as a Maharsi.
# '''''Birth:''''' Shvetaketu was the son of the sage Aruni or [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] who was born in the Gautama clan. Shvetaketu had a sister named Sujata. [[Astavakra]] was her son by the sage, Kahotaka. Thus Shvetaketu was Astavakra's maternal uncle. Shvetaketu and Astavakra grew up together in Uddalaka's ashrama. (See under Astavakra) .
# '''''Pride perishes'':''' Under his father's training Shvetaketu became a great scholar. With the increase in his scholarship, he became very proud. The father who understood this called him to his side and asked him:- ''By studying all about what you can see, hear and understand, have you learnt anything about what you cannot see, hear or understand?'' Shvetaketu admitted that he did not know. Then [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] explained to him the mystery of Paramatma (universal soul) which is without beginning or end. (Chandogyopanisad). Once an acarya named Jatukarnya became the priest of the Kings of KasI, Kosala and Videha. Shvetaketu who was angry at this complained bitterly to his father. Then [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] reminded his son that priests should yearn for wisdom instead of being attracted by worldly pleasures.
# '''''Acharya of Yajna Rules'':''' In Kausitaki Brahmana, Shvetaketu is described as the Acarya of the rules of Yajna. He has laid down definite rules and procedures for priests officiating in Yaygnas along with introducing the different customs and practices to be observed by Brahmacarins and tapasvins. Early dharmasastra which prohibited food of sweet taste to Brahmacharins was repudiated by Shvetaketu (Gopatha Brahmana, 1.33 ; Sarhkhyayana Brahmana, 1.33).
# '''''Author of Kamasastra'':''' Shvetaketu abridged the original work on Kamasastra by Nandi, into 500 chapters. This was further abridged after some years by Babhravya. It was after abridging it again and adding Dattakacarya's "Vaisika" and Suvarnanabha's ''Samprayogika'' etc., that Vatsyayana composed his famous treatise ''Kamasutra''. '''It can be said that the basis of Vatsyayana's ''Kamasutra'' was the works of Babhravya and Shvetaketu on Kamasastra.'''
# '''''Marriage rules'':''' It has been observed that the first person who raised his voice against the evils of drinking and adultery by the Brahmana community was Shvetaketu. There is a story in the Mahabharata about the fact which prompted him to bring marriage within the framework of law. Shvetaketu was [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]]'s son, born to his wife by one of his disciples. (Mahabharata Santi Parva, Chapter 35, Verse 22). Once his mother was abducted by a Brahmana. This incident inspired him to make stringent laws insisting on monogamy for men and women.
== Scriptural Context ==
The context of Shvetaketu appears in three principal (''[[mukhya]]'') [[Upanishad]]s, namely, the
# [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] S. 6.2.1 to 6.2.8
# [[Chandogya Upanishad]] S.5.3
# [[Kausitaki Brahmana]] S.1.
Shvetaketu is the recipient of the knowledge enshrined in the Upanishad [[mahavakya]] which appears in the sixteen chapters of the 6th section (Prapathaka) of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].

Mahabharata Santi Parva, Chapter 35, Verse 22 also talks about Shvetaketu's story.

__FORCETOC__

== The Five Questions ==
As per the [[छान्दोग्य उपनिषद् | छान्दोग्य उपनिषद् (Chandogya Upanishad)]] of the [[सामवेद | Sama Veda]] (5-3), Shvetaketu, once came to the assembly of Panchalas, whose reigning monarch was [[प्रावहन जैवली|Pravahana Jaivali]]. The King asks Shvetaketu whether he was initiated in Brahmavidya or given ब्रह्मोपदेशः ''(brahmopadesha).'' To gauge his understanding of ब्रह्मविद्या (Brahmavidya) the king asks him the following five questions.
# From here (this लोक-loka) where do the people go (after death)?
# How do the dead come back?
# At what point do the paths of the देवयान (journey to the deva loka post death) and पित्रयान (journey to Pritr loka post death) get separated?
# Why do fewer jivatmas attain पित्र् लोक (loka of ancestors)?
# In Panchagni, पञ्चाग्नि. the fifth ahuti (oblation), how does Apa Tattva get the name of Purusha?

Shvetaketu thought himself to be a ब्रह्मज्ञानिन् (brahma jnani) yet did not have a clue to the King’s questions. The King so questions his claim to be a ब्रह्मज्ञानिन् and so humiliated, Shvetaketu returns home to question his father [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]]: ''Bhagavan, you claimed to have given me all knowledge, yet you did not?''

Shvetaketu continued: ''I was not able to answer even one of the questions of that (kshatrabandhu-relative of kshatriya)?'' So saying he put forth the five questions posed by the King to his father. The Father replies: "''I do not know the answer to these questions, if I knew, would I not tell you"?'' So both the father and son go to King Pravahna’s assembly to seek knowledge. The guests were received with hospitality and after that the King humbly requested, <blockquote>''Bhagavan (as a brahmin usually was addressed), you can ask for any kind of wealth that is within the means of a human being?''</blockquote>Here the implication is that the [[Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय) | क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya]] can give material wealth to the Brahmana but '''ब्रह्मविद्या''' as per the prevailing वर्णव्यवस्था (social order) was usually respected as the brahmana’s domain. Notably, contrary to the still continuing popular perception invented by the EIC Indologists and their Indian Sepoys, वर्ण || Varna (translated wrongly as caste) was determined by संस्कार and not parentage.

But Shvetaketu and his father were not there for material wealth, they had come to receive ब्रह्मविद्या from the [[Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय) | क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya]] King. [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] humbly requested the King, ''Please bestow upon us, the answer for the questions you asked my son.''

Before accepting [[उद्दालक|Uddalaka]] and Shvetaketu as his disciples the King had to set down the rules as the reigning system did not allow knowledge to be imparted to
*anyone who stayed outside the precincts of the गुरुकुल,
* unfamiliar persons,
* a person who lacks the अधिकार (aptitude) to acquire knowledge.

So the King requested [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] & his son to stay at his palace. And through many years the King imparted knowledge to both [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] & Shvetaketu.

Responses to these questions were provided through explanation of [[Panchagni Vidya (पञ्चाग्नि विद्या)|Panchagni vidya]], which also included explanations of[[देवयान | devayan (journey to the deva loka post death)]] and [[पित्रयान | pitruyan (journey to Pitr loka post death)]] as well as of [[पञ्च महा यज्ञ |panca maha yajna]]. This was the explanation provided by the king as the essence of [[Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या)|Brahmavidya]]

As an introduction to पञ्चाग्निविद्या, the [[Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय) | क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya]] King told the brahmin, <blockquote>'''''"you are the first one amongst the Brahmans to receive the knowledge of this ब्रह्मविद्या, up until now it was known only to Kshatriyas."'''''</blockquote>This story clearly reveals that in the Vedic period even Kshatriyas were well versed in Brahmavidya debunking the Caste-system hierarchies of the East India Company Indologists’ insinuation that Brahmins' were the only custodians of knowledge.
==References==
# [https://archive.org/stream/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft_djvu.txt Puranic Encycolpedia by Vettam Mani]
# The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Volume 1, location 5060
# Sri Aurobindo, ''The Upanishads'' [http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12]. [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]]. 1972.

Shvetaketu (श्वेतकेतुः)

2017-09-14T06:35:32Z

P16232: /* The Five Questions */

श्वेतकेतु || Shvetaketu, the son of [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] (Aruneya or son of [[अरुणा | Aruna]]) was a [[ब्राह्मण |Brahmana]] and the grandson of sage [[Aruni]]. He represents the quintessential seeker of knowledge. The [[Upanishad]]s entail the journey of Shvetaketu from ignorance to knowledge of the self and truth (''sat'').

== Scriptural Context ==
The context of Shvetaketu appears in three principal (''[[mukhya]]'') [[Upanishad]]s, namely, the
# [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] S. 6.2.1 to 6.2.8
# [[Chandogya Upanishad]] S.5.3
# [[Kausitaki]] Brahmana S.1.
Shvetaketu is the recipient of the knowledge enshrined in the Upanishad [[mahavakya]] which appears in the sixteen chapters of the 6th section (Prapathaka) of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].

Mahabharata Santi Parva, Chapter 35, Verse 22 also talks about Shvetaketu's story.

__FORCETOC__

== The Five Questions ==
As per the [[छान्दोग्य उपनिषद् | छान्दोग्य उपनिषद् (Chandogya Upanishad)]] of the [[सामवेद | Sama Veda]] (5-3), Shvetaketu, once came to the assembly of Panchalas, whose reigning monarch was [[प्रावहन जैवली|Pravahana Jaivali]]. The King asks Shvetaketu whether he was initiated in Brahmavidya or given ब्रह्मोपदेशः ''(brahmopadesha).'' To gauge his understanding of ब्रह्मविद्या (Brahmavidya) the king asks him the following five questions.
# From here (this लोक-loka) where do the people go (after death)?
# How do the dead come back?
# At what point do the paths of the देवयान (journey to the deva loka post death) and पित्रयान (journey to Pritr loka post death) get separated?
# Why do fewer jivatmas attain पित्र् लोक (loka of ancestors)?
# In Panchagni, पञ्चाग्नि. the fifth ahuti (oblation), how does Apa Tattva get the name of Purusha?

Shvetaketu thought himself to be a ब्रह्मज्ञानिन् (brahma jnani) yet did not have a clue to the King’s questions. The King so questions his claim to be a ब्रह्मज्ञानिन् and so humiliated, Shvetaketu returns home to question his father [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]]: ''Bhagavan, you claimed to have given me all knowledge, yet you did not?''

Shvetaketu continued: ''I was not able to answer even one of the questions of that (kshatrabandhu-relative of kshatriya)?'' So saying he put forth the five questions posed by the King to his father. The Father replies: "''I do not know the answer to these questions, if I knew, would I not tell you"?'' So both the father and son go to King Pravahna’s assembly to seek knowledge. The guests were received with hospitality and after that the King humbly requested, <blockquote>''Bhagavan (as a brahmin usually was addressed), you can ask for any kind of wealth that is within the means of a human being?''</blockquote>Here the implication is that the [[Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय) | क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya]] can give material wealth to the Brahmana but '''ब्रह्मविद्या''' as per the prevailing वर्णव्यवस्था (social order) was usually respected as the brahmana’s domain. Notably, contrary to the still continuing popular perception invented by the EIC Indologists and their Indian Sepoys, वर्ण || Varna (translated wrongly as caste) was determined by संस्कार and not parentage.

But Shvetaketu and his father were not there for material wealth, they had come to receive ब्रह्मविद्या from the [[Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय) | क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya]] King. [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] humbly requested the King, ''Please bestow upon us, the answer for the questions you asked my son.''

Before accepting [[उद्दालक|Uddalaka]] and Shvetaketu as his disciples the King had to set down the rules as the reigning system did not allow knowledge to be imparted to
*anyone who stayed outside the precincts of the गुरुकुल,
* unfamiliar persons,
* a person who lacks the अधिकार (aptitude) to acquire knowledge.

So the King requested [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] & his son to stay at his palace. And through many years the King imparted knowledge to both [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] & Shvetaketu.

Responses to these questions were provided through explanation of [[Panchagni Vidya (पञ्चाग्नि विद्या)|Panchagni vidya]], which also included explanations of[[देवयान | devayan (journey to the deva loka post death)]] and [[पित्रयान | pitruyan (journey to Pitr loka post death)]] as well as of [[पञ्च महा यज्ञ |panca maha yajna]]. This was the explanation provided by the king as the essence of [[Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या)|Brahmavidya]]

As an introduction to पञ्चाग्निविद्या, the [[Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय) | क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya]] King told the brahmin, "you are the first one amongst the Brahmans to receive the knowledge of this ब्रह्मविद्या, up until now it was known only to Kshatriyas."
==About Shvetaketu==
Smritis refer to Shvetaketu as a Maharsi.
# '''Birth:''' Shvetaketu was the son of the sage Aruni or [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] who was born in the Gautama clan. Shvetaketu had a sister named Sujata. [[Astavakra]] was her son by the sage, Kahotaka. Thus Shvetaketu was Astavakra's maternal uncle. Shvetaketu and Astavakra grew up together in Uddalaka's ashrama. (See under Astavakra) .
# '''Pride perishes:''' Under his father's training Shvetaketu became a great scholar. With the increase in his scholarship, he became very proud. The father who understood this called him to his side and asked him:- ''By studying all about what you can see, hear and understand, have you learnt anything about what you cannot see, hear or understand?'' Shvetaketu admitted that he did not know. Then [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] explained to him the mystery of Paramatma (universal soul) which is without beginning or end. (Chandogyopanisad). Once an acarya named Jatukarnya became the priest of the Kings of KasI, Kosala and Videha. Shvetaketu who was angry at this complained bitterly to his father. Then [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] reminded his son that priests should yearn for wisdom instead of being attracted by worldly pleasures.
# '''Acharya of Yajna Rules:''' In Kausitaki Brahmana, Shvetaketu is described as the Acarya of the rules of Yajna. He has laid down definite rules and procedures for priests officiating in Yaygnas along with introducing the different customs and practices to be observed by Brahmacarins and tapasvins. Early dharmasastra which prohibited food of sweet taste to Brahmacharins was repudiated by Shvetaketu (Gopatha Brahmana, 1.33 ; Sarhkhyayana Brahmana, 1.33).
# '''Author of Kamasastra:''' Shvetaketu abridged the original work on Kamasastra by Nandi, into 500 chapters. This was further abridged after some years by Babhravya. It was after abridging it again and adding Dattakacarya's "Vaisika" and Suvarnanabha's ''Samprayogika'' etc., that Vatsyayana composed his famous treatise ''Kamasutra''. It can be said that the basis of Vatsyayana's ''Kamasutra'' was the works of Babhravya and Shvetaketu on Kamasastra.
# '''Marriage rules :''' It has been observed that the first person who raised his voice against the evils of drinking and adultery by the Brahmana community was Shvetaketu. There is a story in the Mahabharata about the fact which prompted him to bring marriage within the framework of law. Shvetaketu was [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]]'s son, born to his wife by one of his disciples. (Mahabharata Santi Parva, Chapter 35, Verse 22). Once his mother was abducted by a Brahmana. This incident inspired him to make stringent laws insisting on monogamy for men and women.
This story clearly reveals that in the Vedic period even Kshatriyas were well versed in Brahma-Vidya debunking the Caste-system hierarchies of the East India Company Indologists’ insinuation that brahmins were the only custodians of knowledge.
==References==
# [https://archive.org/stream/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft_djvu.txt Puranic Encycolpedia by Vettam Mani]
# The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Volume 1, location 5060
# Sri Aurobindo, ''The Upanishads'' [http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12]. [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]]. 1972.

Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या)

2017-09-14T06:07:12Z

P16232:

ब्रह्मविद्या || Brahmavidya (derived from the [[Sanskrit (संस्कृत)|संस्कृत || Sanskrit]] words : [[Brahma (ब्रह्मा)|ब्रह्मा || Brahma]] and विद्या || vidya (knowledge) ) is that branch of scriptural knowledge that gives the integral experience of everything from the standpoint of मोक्षम् || mokhsham (Liberation of आत्मा || Atma (soul) from birth and death cycle).

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The Upanishads are Vedanta, the storehouse of knowledge in a higher degree even than the Vedas, with knowledge in the profounder Indian sense of the word, Jnana. Not a mere thinking and interpretation by the intelligence, the pursuit and grasping of a mental form of truth by the intellectual mind, but a 'seeing of it with the soul' and a total living in it with the power of the inner being, by a kind of identification with the object of knowledge is Jnana.

And because it is only by an integral knowing of the self that this kind of direct knowledge can be made complete, it was the self that the Vedantic sages sought to know, to live in and to be one with it by identity. The Upanishads are epic hymns of self-knowledge and world-knowledge and God-knowledge (Ref 5). In other countries philosophers try to apprehend the Truth on an intellectual plane. The Upanisadic inquiry is different, the purpose being to realize inwardly the Truth perceived by the mind or the intellect.

The primary question that is often referred to in Upanishads or Vedanta is that of [[Prakrti (प्रकृति)|Origin of Creation]]. This is explained through th'''e [[Shruti (श्रुति)|श्रुति || Sh]]'''[[Shruti (श्रुति)|rutis]], which is directly heard or experienced by intuition. The dharmic perspective views every action as Yagya, unlike the Western's who view action as Labour. [[Yagya (यज्ञ)|Yagya]] means प्रीणनम् || prinanam (to satisfy). Performance of Yagna brings about complete mental, physical and spiritual development of a human being. It is a continuous activity that living beings offer to the दिव्य || divya (divine).

The royal sages - like Rama and Janaka were kings and at the same time rajarshi's or sages. They were engaged in activities of Material world as rulers and because of their austerities and wisdom knew this Yoga of the Spiritual world. The teachings of this yoga were lost by falling into the hands of selfish and unrighteous people. In the Bhagavadgeeta Srikrishna's divine word brings to light the brahmavidya yoga to the world. The leaders of a country possessing this knowledge of Yoga i.e. moral values of life, will percolate such values down the line into the society irrespective of the present day communities. <blockquote>''Here, in the Vedas - in the karmakanda - a way of life is prescribed for the seeker with actions and duties calculated to discipline and purify him. After leading such a life and eventually forsaking all action, all Vedic karma, he meditates on the truths of the Upanisads. Instead of being mere ideas of intellectual perception, these truths will then become a living reality. The highest of these truths is that there is no differnce between the individual self and the Brahman.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>''It is to attain this highest of states in which the individual self dissolves inseparably in the Brahman that a man becomes a sannyasin after forsaking the very karma that gives him inward maturity. When he is initiated into sannyasa he is taught four mantras, the four [principal] mahakavyas. The four proclaim the identity of the individual self (jivatman) with the Brahman. When these mahavakyas are reflected upon through the method known as "nididhyasana", the seeker will arrive at the stage of realising the'' ''oneness of the individual self and the Brahman. The four mahavakyas occur in four differnt Upanisads. Many are the rites that you have to perform, many are the prayers you have to recite and many are the ways of life you are enjoined to follow - all these according to the Samhitas and Brahmanas. But, when it comes to achieving the highest ideal, the supreme goal of man, you have no alternative to the Upanisads and their mahavakyas.'' </blockquote>
<blockquote>''"The Brahman means realising the jnana that is the highest" (Prajnanam Brahma): this mahavakya occurs in the Aitareya Upanisad of the Rgveda. "I am the Brahman" (Aham Brahmasmi) is the mahavakya belonging to the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad of the'' ''Yajurveda. "That thou art" or "the Paramatman and you are the one and the same" (Tat tvam asi) is from the Chandogya Upanisad of the samaveda. THe fourth mahavakya, "This Self is the Brahman" (Ayam Atma Brahma), is from the Mandukya Upanisad of'' ''the Atharvaveda. (Ref 8)''</blockquote>
This being the oversimplified version of the Brahmavidya, all the Upanishads in their own way proclaim their ways to attaining the Brahaman.

== व्युत्पत्ति || Etymology ==
Brahma means the absolute universal reality derived from Sanskrit धातुः || dhatu (root) which is बृहि || br̥hi (to grow)'''.''' Vidya means wisdom is derived from the dhatu which is विद् || vid (to know).

== ब्रह्मविद्या के अभिरक्षक || Custodians of Brahmavidya ==
A [[Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय)|क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya]] could teach vedanta to a Brahmana or vice versa. An example is [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalalaka]] and [[Shvetaketu (श्वेतकेतु)|Shvetaketu]], both from the Brahmana [[Varna (वर्ण)|वर्ण || Varna]] (social or economic status) learning ब्रह्मविद्या || BrahmaVidya (spiritual knowledge) from the क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya King [[Pravahana Jaivali (प्रावहन जैवली)|Pravahana Jaivali]]. Chapter 6 of the छान्दोग्य उपनिषद् ॥ Chandogya Upanishad of सामवेद (Sama Veda, 5-3) is the most important section where the Atman or Brahman is explained through the Uddalaka and Shvetaketu samvaada or dialogue.

A similar event King Janaka of Videha also imparted the Agnihotra ritual to his spiritual teacher.

In Bhagavad Geeta Chap 4 Sri Krishna explains to Arjuna about the parampara of Brahmavidya or Jnaanavidya thus,<blockquote>इमं विवस्वते योगं प्रोक्तवानहमव्ययम् |</blockquote>
<blockquote>विवस्वान्मनवे प्राह मनुरिक्ष्वाकवेऽब्रवीत् || (4.1)</blockquote><blockquote>imaṃ vivasvate yogaṃ proktavānahamavyayam | vivasvānmanave prāha manurikṣvākave'bravīt || (4.1)</blockquote>'''Meaning''' : I taught this eternal Yoga to Vivasvan (Sun-God); he taught it to Manu (the ancient law maker) and Manu proclaimed it to Ikshvaku (ancestor of Kshatriyas or Royal lineage of Rama). <blockquote>एवं परम्पराप्राप्तमिमं राजर्षयो विदुः |</blockquote>
<blockquote>स कालेनेह महता योगो नष्टः परन्तप || (4.2)</blockquote><blockquote>evaṃ paramparāprāptamimaṃ rājarṣayo viduḥ | sa kāleneha mahatā yogo naṣṭaḥ parantapa || (4.2)</blockquote>'''Meaning''' : This knowledge was handed down in regular succession and known to the royal sages राजर्षयः . This yoga due to long lapse of time has been lost to the world, O Arjuna.

== Brahmavidya In मुण्डकोपनिषद || Mundakopanishad ==
This Upaniṣad speaks about Ātmā and Brahma and also about the paths for attaining thereto; but the exposition herein is rather direct and precise. The postulations in the Upaniṣad are presented in the form of instructions imparted to one शौनक || Śaunaka, a great householder, by Sage Angiras.

Śaunaka approaches and asks Angiras, “Lord, what having known does all this become known?” <blockquote>भगवो, कस्मिन् विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवति || (4.1.1.3)'''</blockquote>
<blockquote>Bhagavo, kasmin vijñāte sarvamidaṃ vijñātaṃ bhavati || (4.1.1.3)</blockquote>
Rushi Angirasa declares that mere knowledge of Vedas is not adequate to elevate a man to higher levels of awareness culminating in immortality. The superior knowledge that teaches about the transcendent entity knowing which leads to attainment of immortality. <blockquote>यत्तदद्रेश्यमग्राह्यमगोत्रमवर्णंमचक्षुःश्रोत्रं तदपाणिपादम् |</blockquote>
<blockquote>नित्यं विभुं सर्वगतं सुसूक्ष्मं तदव्ययं यद्भूतयोनिं परिपश्यन्ति धीराः || (1.1.6)</blockquote>
<blockquote>yattadadreśyamagrāhyamagotramavarṇamacakṣuḥśrotraṃ tadapāṇipādam |</blockquote>
<blockquote>nityaṃ vibhuṃ sarvagataṃ susūkṣmaṃ tadavyayaṃ yadbhūtayoniṃ paripaśyanti dhīrāḥ || (1.1.6)</blockquote>
'''Meaning''' : That which is invisible, inconceivable, without lineage, without Varṇa, without eyes and ears, without hands and feet, and that which is eternal, all-pervasive, omnipresent, extremely subtle and undecaying – that is what the wise behold as the source of all beings. (As given in Ref 3)

This Upanishad makes a difference between ‘Para Vidya’ and ‘Apara
Vidya’, and declares that it is the former by which Brahman is realized.(Ref 6).

== Brahmavidya In छान्दोग्य उपनिषद || Chandogya Upanishad ==
This Upanishad occupies a special place with several illuminating dialogues between the teachers like Aruni, Sanatkumara, and Prajapati and the truth seekers like, Shvetaketu, Satyakama, and Narada respectively, the Upanishad helps us to discriminate between the reality of Being and the appearance of becoming. (Ref 6)

[[Shvetaketu (श्वेतकेतु)|Shvetaketu]] (Aruneya or son of Aruni), a Brahmin, came to the assembly of Panchalas, whose reigning monarch was Pravahana Jaivali, to understand ब्रह्मविद्या || Brahmavidya.

Shvetaketu thought himself to be a ब्रह्मज्ञानिन् || brahmajnanin (knowledgeable about the Brahman) yet did not know the answers related to the King’s questions about Brahmavidya or vedanta. The King pointed out that a mere initiation or Brahmopadesa doesn't make one a ब्रह्मज्ञानिन्. Humiliated, Shvetaketu returns home and relating the incident, rebukes his father Uddalaka. Shvetaketu and Uddalaka's conversation reveals their lack of knowledge in the subject and hence their inability to answer any question of the kshatrabandhu or the King.

== ब्रह्मविद्या सारम् || Summary of Brahmavidya ==
The 6th chapter of Chandogya Upanishad begins with a view to show that the Self in all is One. The dialogue between Svetaketu and Uddalaka is for the purpose of showing the gravity of the philosophy. After twelve years of Vedic studies Shvetaketu returns home thinking himself to be a ब्रह्मज्ञानिन् ''||'' brahma jnanin (knowledgeable about the Brahman). But Uddalaka seeing his son's pride asked him: <blockquote>तमादेशमप्राक्ष्यः येनाश्रुतं श्रुतं भवति अमतं मतं अविज्ञातं विज्ञातं इति || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.2 & 6.1.3)</blockquote>
<blockquote>tamādeśamaprākṣyaḥ yenāśrutaṃ śrutaṃ bhavati, amataṃ mataṃ avijñātaṃ vijñātaṃ iti || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.2 & 6.1.3)</blockquote>
'''Meaning''' : “Dear son, did you ask for that instruction by which the unheard becomes heard, the unperceived becomes perceived and the unknown becomes known?"

What the father asks about is the knowledge of the ultimate principle that cannot be grasped by the ordinary faculties of cognition. The implication of the phrase ‘unheard becomes heard, etc.’ is that this particular knowledge cannot be acquired by physical faculties of cognition. It is also indicated here that knowledge of Vedas is fruitless if, with it, one is not able to know the ultimate principle.
[[Shvetaketu (श्वेतकेतु)|Shvetaketu]] was unaware of such a type of knowledge, though he had studied the Vedas properly. So he desired to know what kind of instruction that was. The father explains thus:<blockquote>“यथा सोम्यैकेन मृत्पिण्डेन सर्वं मृन्मयं विज्ञातं | </blockquote>
<blockquote>स्यात्वाचारम्भणं विकारो नामधेयं मृत्तिकेत्येव सत्यम्” || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.4)</blockquote>
<blockquote>“yathā somyaikena mṛtpiṇḍena sarvaṃ mṛnmayaṃ vijñātaṃ syāt | </blockquote>
<blockquote>vācārambhaṇaṃ vikāro nāmadheyaṃ mṛttiketyeva satyam” || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.4)</blockquote>
<blockquote>“यथा सोम्यैकेन लोहमणिना सर्वं लोहमयं विज्ञातं | </blockquote>
<blockquote>स्यात्वाचारम्भणं विकारो नामधेयं लोहमित्येव सत्यम्” || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.5)</blockquote>
<blockquote>“yathā somyaikena lohamaṇinā sarvaṃ lohamayaṃ vijñātaṃ syāt | </blockquote>
<blockquote>vācārambhaṇaṃ vikāro nāmadheyaṃ lohamityeva satyam” || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.5)</blockquote>
<blockquote>“यथा सोम्यैकेन नखनिकृन्तनेन सर्वं कार्ष्णायसं विज्ञातं |</blockquote>
<blockquote>स्यात्वाचारम्भणं विकारो नामधेयं कृष्णायसमित्येव सत्यं एवं सोम्य स अदेशो भवतीति” || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.6)</blockquote>
<blockquote>“yathā somyaikena nakhanikṛntanena sarvaṃ kārṣṇāyasaṃ vijñātaṃ syāt | </blockquote>
<blockquote>vācārambhaṇaṃ vikāro nāmadheyaṃ kṛṣṇāyasamityeva satyaṃ evaṃ somya sa adeśo bhavatīti” || (Chan. Upan. 6.1.6)</blockquote>
'''Meaning''': ‘That instruction, my dear, is just as:

(i) by a single lump of earth, all that is earthen becomes known as mere modifications expressed in names based on words, the truth being that all is earth only;

(ii) by a single ingot of gold, all that is golden becomes known as mere modifications expressed in names based on words, the truth being that all is gold only; and

(iii) by a single nail-cutter, all that is made of iron becomes known as mere modifications expressed in names based on words, the truth being that all is iron only’.

The implication is that there exists only one entity and all that is here is only modifications of that entity expressed in names and forms. If that entity is known, everything it manifests also is known. Upanishads consistently declare that Ātmā is this entity. It however does not mean that one who realises that entity would know all nuances of the physical world.

== आत्म तत्त्वम् || Atma Tattvam ==
Ātmā is ‘SAT-CHIT- ĀNANDA’ (‘सत् चित् आनन्द’ – ‘sat-cit-ānanda’) in essence. SAT is that which does not have a state of non-existence (Bhagavad Gīta – 2.16), CHIT is pure, absolute consciousness and ĀNANDA is transcendent bliss. Why Ātmā, that is said to be
the ruling force of the universe, is ‘SAT-CHIT- ĀNANDA’? Because, the whole universe is motivated, in all its activities, by the urge either to exist or to express or to enjoy. SAT denotes existence, CHIT denotes cognition and expression, and Ānanda denotes enjoyment. So, Ātmā is ‘SAT-CHIT- ĀNANDA’; it is only a logical abstraction of the urge behind all the actions in this universe. Chapter 6 of Chandogya Upanishad explains in great detail the concept of Atma.

From SAT the entire universe emerged. In 6.2.1 and 6.2.2 it is known that only SAT existed in the beginning and nothing else; from it, all came forth. In the
beginning, तेजस || tejas (energy) emerged from SAT, from energy, water emerged and from
water, अन्नम् || annam (food) emerged; it was from annam that all beings came forth (6.2.3 & 6.2.4).

Since from SAT, the
three entities of energy, water and food emerged progressively resulting in emergence of beings, every being contains all the three; and they also contain the principle of SAT which sustains their very existence (6.3 & 6.4). Annam when consumed becomes three-fold, viz. the grossest becomes faeces, the subtlest becomes mind and the middle part becomes flesh. Water consumed similarly becomes urine, prāṇa and blood respectively. Energy in the same way becomes bone, वाक् || vāk (speech) and marrow. Thus, mind consists in annam, prāṇa in water and speech in energy (6.5.1 to 6.5.4 and 6.6).

In section 6.7
Uddālaka Āruṇi demonstrates to his son Śvetaketu without annam the mind does not work properly. Śvetaketu was asked not to take food for fifteen days; he did so and then, he was unable to remember the Vedas he studied. Later he ate and was able to remember all. Uddālaka concludes by asserting that mind consists in annam, prāṇa consists in water and speech consists in energy :<blockquote>अन्नमयं हि मन, आपोमयः प्राणः, तेजोमयी वाक् || (Chan. Upan. 6.7.6)</blockquote>
<blockquote>annamayaṃ hi mana, āpomayaḥ prāṇaḥ, tejomayī vāk || (Chan. Upan. 6.7.6)</blockquote>
Uddālaka continues his teaching as in verse 6.8 by explaining what sleep means. In sleep one is fully possessed by SAT which is his origin :<blockquote>स्वं अपीतो भवति, तस्मात् एनम्स्व पितीत्याचक्षते || (Chan. Upan. 6.8.1)'''</blockquote>
<blockquote>svaṃ apīto bhavati, tasmāt enam svapitītyācakṣate || (Chan. Upan. 6.8.1)</blockquote>
<blockquote>प्राणबन्धनं हि मन || (Chan. Upan. 6.8.2)'''</blockquote>
<blockquote>prāṇabandhanaṃ hi mana || (Chan. Upan. 6.8.2)</blockquote>
'''Meaning''' : In deep sleep, even the mind ceases to work and rests on prāṇa. When mind does not work, it is obvious that speech also will not work. So, in sleep, only prāṇa is active, apart from SAT, the origin.

In the 6.8.7 verse, it is clarified that that this highest entity is Ātmā which is subtleness itself and therefore, SAT, which, as we have seen, as the source of energy, prāṇa and annam, is implied to be a constituent of Ātmā. The declaration that on leaving from
here or, in other words, on shedding this body, every being merges into Ātmā, is a very important one. It scotches all talks about rebirth of the same individual. Personal identity is lost on merging with Ātmā which is an incessant, all-pervading entity, without a second.<blockquote>स य एषोഽणिमा ऐतदात्म्यमिदम् सर्वं तत् सत्यम् स आत्मा तत्त्वमसि श्वेतकेतो || (Chan. Upan. 6.8.7)'''</blockquote>
<blockquote>sa ya eṣo’ṇimā aitadātmyamidam sarvaṃ tat satyam sa ātmā tattvamasi śvetaketo || (Chan. Upan. 6.8.7)</blockquote>
'''Meaning''': ‘He (that Great Being mentioned in the previous verse) is absolute subtleness (subtle essence) which inheres in all that is here; that (all that is here) is Satyam, He (the Great Being) is Ātmā; you are that (Satyam), O, Śvetaketu.

This fact finds expression in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.4.12 also; again it is seen in 6.9 and 6.10 also. This sentence is seen repeated in verses 6.9.4, 6.10.3, 6.11.3, 6.12.3, 6.13.3, 6.14.3 and 6.15.3.Incidentally, it is the very phrase ''तत्त्वमसि || tattvamasi'' appearing here, that is designated as one of the four Mahāvākya(s) in the Upanishads.

In 6.9.3, Uddālaka explains to his son further about how personal identity is lost on being merged
with the Supreme Entity as mentioned in 6.8.6, by citing the example of the process of making honey by honey bees. The bees collect nectar from various trees and make honey mixing all; when honey is produced, the nectar of a tree cannot distinguish itself from the nectar of other trees; its personal identity is lost. All beings, whether it be a tiger, or lion, or wolf, or a pig, or insect, or gnat, or mosquito, all continue their existence in the same manner.
This means that they exist as merged in the Supreme Entity without knowing their personal identity, as in the case of nectar of various trees in the honey. The verse is as follows:<blockquote>त इह व्याघ्रो वा सिंहो वा वृको वा वराहो वा कीटो वा पतङ्गो वा दंशो वा मशको वा यद्यद् भवन्ति तदाभवन्ति’ || (6.9.3)</blockquote>
<blockquote>ta iha vyāghro vā siṃho vā vṛko vā varāho vā kīṭo vā pataṅgo vā daṃśo vā maśako vā yadyad bhavanti tadābhavanti || (Chan. Upan. 6.9.3)</blockquote>

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==
In all humility, both [[Uddalaka (उद्दालक)|Uddalaka]] and [[Shvetaketu (श्वेतकेतु)|Shvetaketu]] go to King Pravahna’s assembly to seek knowledge. Offering all hospitality, the King humbly addresses Uddalaka thus: "Bhagavan (as a brahmin usually was addressed), you can ask for any kind of wealth that is within the means of a human being". But Shvetaketu and his father requested the क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya to impart ब्रह्मविद्या || Brahmavidya to them and accordingly the King lays down the rules or अधिकार || adhikaar (aptitude) to acquire knowledge.

Here the implication is that the ruler, Kshatriya, according to his dharma is bound to provide material wealth to a Brahmana for Yagnas but ब्रह्मविद्या as per the prevailing वर्णव्यवस्था || varna-vyavastha (social order) was usually respected to be in the brahmana’s domain. Notably, this is view is contrary to the presently continuing popular perception invented by the East India Company Indologists and their Indian Sepoys, Varna (translated wrongly as caste) was determined by संस्कार and not parentage.

Through the explanation of [[Panchagni Vidya (पञ्चाग्नि विद्या)|Panchagni vidya]], which included explanations of [[Devayana and Pitrayana (देवयान मार्ग और पित्रयान मार्ग)|devayan (journey to the deva loka post death)]] and [[Devayana and Pitrayana (देवयान मार्ग और पित्रयान मार्ग)|pitruyan (journey to Pitr loka post death)]] as well as of [[Panchamahayagna (पञ्चमहायज्ञ)|panca maha yajna]] the king imparted the essence of ब्रह्मविद्या || Brahmavidya. As an introduction to पञ्चाग्निविद्या, the क्षत्रिय || Kshatriya King told Uddalaka, "You are the first one amongst the Brahmans to receive the knowledge of this ब्रह्मविद्या, up until now it was known only to Kshatriyas". Within the Bharatiya tradition, everyone irrespective of their Varna (social or economic status) had access to Divine Knowledge.

Hence "Brahmavid brahmana" was the definition given, One who knows Brahmavidya is a brahmana irrespective of the varna or gender.

This story clearly reveals that in the Vedic period, Kshatriyas were well versed in ब्रह्मविद्य debunking the Caste-system hierarchies of the East India Company Indologists’ insinuation that Brahmins were the only custodians of knowledge.

== References ==
# Narayanacharya, K. S. (2011). ''Veda Sanskritiya Parichaya, Part I''. Hubli:Sahitya Prakashana.
# (2015). ''Shrimad Bhagvadgita, Chapter 4.'' Gorakhpur:Gita Press.
# https://www.indiadivine.org/science-mundaka-upanishad/ Posted by Karthikeyan Sreedharan | Jun 18, 2017 | Articles on Hinduism
# http://upanishads.org.in/upanishads/4/1/1/3#
# https://www.indiadivine.org/science-chandogya-upanishad/ Posted by Karthikeyan Sreedharan | Mar 27, 2017 | Articles on Hinduism
# Sri Aurobindo. (1972). ''[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.146964 The Upanishads: Texts, Translations and Commentaries, Vol 12].'' Pondicherry:Sri Aurobindo Ashram.
# http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/27664/5/05_chapter2.pdf
# Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati. (2009). ''The Vedas''. Mumbai:Bhavan's Book University.
# Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi MahaSwamiji. (). ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap30.htm Hindu Dharma, Part 5 ,Chapter 30.]'' Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
# Ganganatha, Jha. (1923). ''The Chandogya Upanishad and Sri Sankara's Commentary'', Fourth Volume, Madras: The India Printing Works

Surya (सूर्यः)

2017-09-12T11:30:21Z

P16232: /* Discussion */

Surya (Sanskrit : सूर्य, Mitra Ravi, Bhaanu, Aditya are a few synonyms) occupies a prominent position as 'Pratyaksha Daivam' since Vedic times. Vedic wisdom of human consciousness was 'to see light'. For life to be complete and viewed beautifully the primary requirement is to dispel darkness. In the philosophical sense this 'seeing light' is said to be 'attaining knowledge', that which dispels the ignorance of Self and Paramatma.

Surya gives light to all the other grahas (planets). It has an area of 50 crore yojanas and its distance from the earth is 22 crore yojanas. In the external world, the trees, plants and birds, every living being depends on Light.

== Introduction ==
Since Vedic times, Surya who is considered as the visible 'lamp of the solar system' is worshiped as 'pratyaksha daivam (Visible God)'. All life forms depend on Surya, his rays, and the heat, for virtually everything. Most importantly the earthly Kala (time) year, month, week, seasons, rains; all time factors depend upon on light and Surya. Needless to say that without Surya there is no life on Earth. Surya appears in Rig veda as Mitra along with Varuna mostly in Vedic literature as against Surya or the Bhaskara in more recent spiritual texts. There are different opinions about the Dwasasha Aditya's and Surya's association with them. Following are the different aspects associated with Surya across the various texts.
* '''Gayatri mantra''' : The Gayathri mantra is essentially a prayer for awakening of wisdom of the mind. This internal wisdom and Jnana is far more brighter than the external brightness that is coming from Surya. Meditation thus shows the way because all aspire that our intelligence may lead us to right path. Thus Surya as Savitru stands for knowledge.
* '''Sandhyavandanam''' : All the Veda prescribed activities start with Surya for example, performance of Sandhyavandam and Suryanamaskarams.
* '''Karma Pravrittaka''' : He inspires all the living beings into performing their duties an activities of daily life.
* '''Arogya Pradaata''' : 'Aarogyam bhaskaraadichhet' as given in the texts imparts great significance to Surya as the bestower of health to mankind.
* '''Dwadasha Adityas''' : The dwadasha (12) Adityas (sons of [[Aditi and Diti|Aditi]] or the Devamata) are different forms of Surya having different roles and personifications of natural phenomena.
* '''Navagraha Adhipati''' : Surya receives a prominent position among devatas and he is the first among the Navagrahas. Ravi or Surya is the adhipati (leader) of the navagrahas and associated with the precious stone 'ruby'.
* '''Panchaloka Palaka''' : Ganapati, Surya, Vishnu, Durga/Devi, And Shiva form the panchalokapalakas who are the deities worshiped in the altars of householders according to some prominent traditions of Sanatana Dharma.
* '''Dikpalaka''' : Surya the ruler of the 'East' direction is first of the Astadikpalakas.
* '''Purana Purusha''' : Innumerable instances of Surya are seen in Puranas (Bhavisya Purana was told by Surya to Manu), Ramayana (Lord of Ikshwaku dynasty, Father of Sugriva, Guru of [[Hanuman]]) and Mahabharata (as the father of Karna, Giver of Akshayapatra to Yudhisthira). He was worshiped and pleased by Yagnavalkya, to whom he gave the Yajurveda knowledge thus Vajasaneya (Shukla) Shaka of Yajurveda came into existence.
* '''Surya Loka''' : He offers shelter to about 60,0000 Valakhilyas who surround and meditate upon the Surya Paramatma, in Surya mandala or Loka.
* '''Chakshu''' : In Jyothisha Surya is represents the power of sight, right eye and illnesses associated with it.
* '''Atma karaka''' : The Brhdaranyaka, Chandogya and Kausitaki Upanishads expound the Atmatattva of Surya and path for the realization of the soul.
Therefore Surya represents the unlimited power of God, His brightness, Creation and the power of imparting knowledge. Surya Siddhatanta, is an authoritative text on astronomy and calculations of time prescribed in the field of Jyotisha (Vedanga) of the Vedic period. Jyotisha as one of the Vedanga, deals with ascertaining the time of the day and forecasting auspicious day and time for Vedic rituals (muhurta).

== Etymology ==
'''[[Amarakosha]]''' defines the following about Surya in व्योमादिवर्ग (Prathama kanda Slokas 29 - 32) <blockquote>"सूरसुर्यार्यमादित्यद्वादशात्मदिवाकराः । भास्कराहस्करव्रध्नप्रभाकरदिवाकराः || (Amara 1. व्योमा. 29)"</blockquote><blockquote>"भास्वद्विस्वत्सप्ताश्वहरिदश्वोष्णरश्मयः । विकर्तनार्कमार्तण्डमिहिरारुणपूषणः || (Amara 1. व्योमा. 30)"</blockquote><blockquote>"द्युमणिस्तरणिर्मित्रस्चित्रभानुर्विरोचनः । विभावसुर्ग्रहपतिस्त्विषांपतिरहर्पतिः || (Amara 1. व्योमा. 31)"</blockquote><blockquote>"भानुर्हंसः सहस्रांशुस्तपनः सविता रविः । माठरः पिङ्लो दण्डश्चण्डांशोः पारिपार्श्विकाः || (Amara 1. व्योमा. 32)"</blockquote>Synonyms for Surya include Soora, Surya, Yama, Aditya, Dwadashatma, Divakara, Bhaskara, Ahaskara, Martanda, Aruna, Pushana, Tarani, Mitra, Chitrabhanu, Tapana and many others as given above.

[[Sayanacharya (सायनाचार्यः)|Sayanaacharya]] in '''Saayanabhashyam''' while defining Surya, explains:<blockquote>"sushtu aryaha swami sarvantharaymi thaya sushtu prerakaha (Ref?)"</blockquote>Meaning : The best of the masters, sarvatharayami (one who dwells everywhere), the best inspirer- such paramatma is compared to Surya.

Yaska maharshi explains in '''Nirukthi'''<blockquote>"“suryaha sathirva suthirva suryathe va (Ref?)"</blockquote>Meaning : Surya is One who travels, one who creates and one who inspires.

The mantras connected to Surya, are chanted and recited by those who perform their daily sandhyavandanam, as Surya is the 'preraka (inspirer) to perform one's Karma. Rig Mantras consider Surya as the eyes of Vedapurusha and the 'antaratma' as explained in '''Rig Samhita''' as follows <blockquote>"चित्रं देवानामुदगादनीकं चक्षुर्मित्रस्य वरुणस्याग्नेः |"</blockquote><blockquote>"आप्रा दयावाप्र्थिवी अन्तरिक्षं सूर्य आत्मा जगतस्तस्थुषश्च || (Rig Veda 1.115.1)</blockquote><blockquote>"citraṃ devānāmudaghādanīkaṃ cakṣurmitrasya varuṇasyāghneḥ |"</blockquote><blockquote>"āprā dyāvāpṛthivī antarikṣaṃ sūrya ātmā jaghatastasthuṣaśca || (Rig Veda 1.115.1)"</blockquote>Meaning : One who is “antaryami taya sarvasya prerakaha paramatma according to Sayana Acarya whose commentary says that 'Surya is the atma of the universe and the cause of the universe'.

'''Taitriya Aranyaka''' explains <blockquote>"yo asau tapan udethi' (1.14.1) "</blockquote>Meaning : Surya is the atma of the universe.

When Sun rises, the people who are asleep and mentally detached from the world ('dead to the world') during the night time, become revitalized. It becomes “[[Sat (सत्)|Sat]] if he sets, even though the world is there, it is almost like dead. Paramatma is always responsible for wakefulness, sleep, living and dying, completeness and incompleteness as per Sayana in his bhashya.

== Surya Suktams in Rigveda ==
Surya is a prominent as Mitra and Savitru in many Rig veda mantras and the Surya or saura sukas in Rig veda are numbered as follows : 1.50. 1 to 13, 1.115. 1 to 6, 1.164.46 among many others. The following is the famous Rig veda soura suktam which is recited by many people across India. <blockquote>नमो मित्रस्य वरुणस्य चक्षसे महो देवाय तद रतंसपर्यत |</blockquote><blockquote>दूरेद्र्शे देवजाताय केतवे दिवस पुत्रायसूर्याय शंसत || 1 ||</blockquote><blockquote>सा मा सत्योक्तिः परि पातु विश्वतो दयावा च यत्रततनन्नहानि च |</blockquote><blockquote>विश्वमन्यन नि विशते यदेजतिविश्वाहापो विश्वाहोदेति सूर्यः || 2 ||</blockquote><blockquote>न ते अदेवः परदिवो नि वासते यदेतशेभिः पतरैरथर्यसि |</blockquote><blockquote>पराचीनमन्यदनु वर्तते रज उदन्येनज्योतिषा यासि सूर्य || 3 ||</blockquote><blockquote>येन सूर्य जयोतिषा बाधसे तमो जगच्च विश्वमुदियर्षिभानुना |</blockquote><blockquote>तेनास्मद विश्वामनिरामनाहुतिमपामीवामप दुष्वप्न्यं सुव || 4 ||</blockquote><blockquote>विश्वस्य हि परेषितो रक्षसि वरतमहेळयन्नुच्चरसिस्वधा अनु |</blockquote><blockquote>यदद्य तवा सूर्योपब्रवामहै तं नो देवानु मंसीरत करतुम || 5 ||</blockquote><blockquote>तं नो दयावाप्र्थिवी तन न आप इन्द्रः शर्ण्वन्तु मरुतोहवं वचः |</blockquote><blockquote>मा शूने भूम सूर्यस्य सन्द्र्शिभद्रं जीवन्तो जरणामशीमहि || 6 ||</blockquote><blockquote>विश्वाहा तवा सुमनसः सुचक्षसः परजावन्तो अनमीवानागसः |</blockquote><blockquote>उद्यन्तं तवा मित्रमहो दिवे-दिवे जयोग जीवाःप्रति पश्येम सूर्य || 7 ||</blockquote><blockquote>महि जयोतिर्बिभ्रतं तवा विचक्षण भास्वन्तं चक्षुषे चक्षुषे मयः |</blockquote><blockquote>आरोहन्तं बर्हतः पाजसस परि वयंजीवाः परति पश्येम सूर्य || 8 ||</blockquote><blockquote>यस्य ते विश्वा भुवनानि केतुना पर चेरते नि च विशन्तेक्तुभिः |</blockquote><blockquote>अनागास्त्वेन हरिकेश सूर्याह्नाह्ना नोवस्यसा-वस्यसोदिहि || 9 ||</blockquote><blockquote>शं नो भव चक्षसा शं नो अह्ना शं भानुना शंहिमा शं घर्णेन |</blockquote><blockquote>यथा शमध्वञ्छमसद दुरोणेतत सूर्य दरविणं धेहि चित्रम || 10 ||</blockquote><blockquote>अस्माकं देवा उभयाय जन्मने शर्म यछत दविपदेचतुष्पदे |</blockquote><blockquote>अदत पिबदूर्जयमानमाशितं तदस्मेशं योररपो दधातन || 11 ||</blockquote><blockquote>यद वो देवाश्चक्र्म जिह्वया गुरु मनसो वा परयुतीदेवहेळनम |</blockquote><blockquote>अरावा यो नो अभि दुछुनायते तस्मिन तदेनोवसवो नि धेतन || 12 || (Rig Veda 10.037.1 to 12)</blockquote>

== देवतास्वरुपम् ॥ Surya Devataswaroopam ==
It is said that the Surya was born to Kasyapa by his wife Aditi. Several sons were born to Kashyapa by Aditi the daughter of Daksa. They are known by the names Adityas, Vasus, Rudras and so on. Of these, Adityas (son of Aditi) are twelve in number. There is a difference of opinion as to who these [[Dwadasa Adityas]] (12 Adityas) are. Very often these names are used as synonyms of Sun.

Legend goes that Surya has two wives Samjna, who was the daughter of Viswakarma, and Chaya. Samjna begot three children by Surya : '''Manu, [[Yama (यम)|Yama]] and Yami.'''

Samjna unable to bear the brightness or the effulgence of Surya created Chaya, (her look alike) out of her shadow and engaged her to take her place to look after Surya and her children. She then left for the forests to do penance. Surya took Chaya to be his wife Samjna and got three children of her : Sanaiscara, (another) Manu and Tapati. '''manu repeated twice???'''

Once Chaya not being the real mother of Yama was angry with him and cursed him. Noticing the unmotherly behaviour Surya and Yama understand that she was not Samjna. Knowing from Chaya about her, Surya found out that Samjna was practising austerities taking the form of a mare. Then Surya went to her disguised as a horse and with her co-operation produced three children of which the first two came to be known as Aswinikumaras. The third son was called Revanta. Then Surya took Samjna to his place (Chapter 2, Amsa 3, Visnu Purana). Yama became the God of Death, and Aswinikumaras the Vaidyas or physicians.

== Surya and Kalachakra ==
Surya exists within the universe, and is called Martanda as he is said to have originated from the dead (mrta) egg (anda).

Surya divides the sky, heaven, hell, the earth, east, west, north, south etc. from one another.

According to the travel course of Surya three periods of time or 'seasons' like uttarayana, daksinayana and visuvat are caused.

Surya's chariot has one wheel and twelve spokes. The wheel represents a year and the twelve spokes stand for the twelve months of the year.

The chariot has also three nabhis representing the three caturmasyas, and six bands representing the six seasons. The height of the chariot is 36 lakhs yojanas and it has a width of 8 yojanas inside. Arunadeva is his charioteer, and the seven chandas are the horses. The seven chandas are, Gayatri, Brhati, Usnik, Jagati, Tristubh, Anustubh and Pahkti.

Night is called Usa and day Vyusti and the time in between is Sandhya. (Ref 2)

Eclipses of Surya and Chandra are attributed to Rahu and Ketu. Eclipse is the phenomenon of Rahu and Ketu swallowing Surya and Chandra as and when opportunity presents itself for it. But, since the throat of Rahu is severed from the body, Surya and Candra thus swallowed get out through the throat. (Bhagavata Astama skanda).

The famous Konark Temple, though the sanctum sanctorium is closed for many years now, still holds the secrets of time calculations of past ages.

Thus, while Surya has been attributed to various things, the Atma tattva of Surya is greatly significant and he is worshiped by sadhakas for attaining the 'Atma Jnana'.

== Surya Tattvam ==
The tatva or nature of Surya has been explained in many contexts of scriptures.

====== Karma Pravrittaka ======
Rk Samhita explains <blockquote>"तत् सूर्यस्य देवत्वं तन्महित्वं मध्या कर्तोर्विततं सं जभार |
यदेदयुक्त हरितः सधस्थादाद्रात्री वासस्तनुते सिमस्मै || (Rig Samhita 1.115.4)"
tat sūryasya devatvaṁ tanmahitvaṁ madhyā kartorvitataṁ saṁ jabhāra | 
yadedayukta haritaḥ sadhasthādādrātrī vāsastanute simasmai || (Rig Samhita 1.115.4)</blockquote>Meaning: The greatness of Surya and His mastership spreads over and everything is revealed through his rays, whose setting hides all His greatness and thus putting to rest all the activities of the living entities. The rising Surya springs all beings into action and life again.

====== Buddhi Prachodaka ======
Surya is the devata for Gayatri mantra which explains " May the light coming from Surya activate my Mind or Buddhi" . And it also says that Surya or Bhagavan is the one who gives us inspiration for wisdom. It also explains that it is the beautiful harmony between jnana and karma. This is the breath or essence of Gayathri and it is a beautiful formula to make life auspicious and wonderful. In this way Surya or sun god is initiator or inspirer for all activities.

====== Atma Jnanakaraka ======
Surya represents transcendental knowledge and also only because of him the great karma or the great action becomes inspired. He represents that Light or Jnana which is beyond the external sun, called as 'paranjyothi' as a personification of Knowledge of the Brahman.

====== Veda Swaroopa ======
Surya is associated with Vedas and his 'Bhagavat tatva' is explicitly given as -

“ragdbhihi purvarne divi yathe yajur vede thishtihi madhye ahna sama vedana sthamay thamayathi vedai asunyai tribhirethi surya ha “ (Ref for 3.12.9? )

Meaning : Surya when rises in eastern direction is associated with rik veda, at peak is associated with Yajur Veda and while setting he is associated with Sama Veda.

Surya though unseen in the physical plane traverses the path of the Vedas or along the Vedic path. He symbolizes the Vedas which are hence called: “asunya. Symbolically, His connection to the Vedas and Veda Jnana is intertwined and expressed beautifully by the path traversed by Him in the form of “jnana surya.

In the morning the Rgveda praises the Sun. At noon the Yajurveda praises the Sun and in the evening the Samans such as Brhad Rathantara and so on. The complete power of Visnu is the three Vedas Rig, Yajus and Sama. The power in the form of the three Vedas blazes in the form of the Sun. That power destroys all the sins in the world. Visnu stays in the sun in the form of Rg, Yajus and Sama for the Sustenance and protection of the world. As said before, the three Vedas are the parasakti, or the feminine supreme power of Visnu. She is the three Vedas themselves. Every month she stays inside that particular Aditya of the month.

Thus this Vaisnavite power which is having the attribute of purity (Sattva) and Vedas, pervades mainly the sun though it remains on the seven groups also. Being the seat of this power, the Sun blazes with his rays and destroys the darkness in all the worlds. Such a Sun is praised by the hermits. The Gandharvas sing in front of the Sun. The celestial maids dance before him. The giants guard him, the serpents prepare his chariot, the Yaksas hold the bridle and the Balakhilyas stand around him. Visnu who is having the figure of the Sun pervaded by the power of the Vedas, never rises or sets. The seven groups are separate from that Visnu. As the figures of those who approach, are reflected in a mirror fixed on a post, that power of Visnu, without separating itself from that chariot, pervades them who come every month in turn. (Visnu Purana, Amsa 2, Chapter 11 ).

== Discussion ==

== References ==
# Veda Sanskrita Parichaya
# https://ia802606.us.archive.org/17/items/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft.pdf
# <nowiki>http://www.sanskritebooks.org/2009/07/amara-kosa-the-sanskrit-thesaurus-with-notes-index/</nowiki> (Page no 29)
# http://ignca.nic.in/Vedic_portal_rigveda_shakala_Samhita_m01.htm

Charvaka Darshana (चार्वाकदर्शनम्)

2017-09-12T11:25:38Z

P16232: /* Controversy on reliability of sources */

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Charvaka, also called Lokayata (Sanskrit: “Worldly Ones”), a quasi-philosophical Indian school of materialists who rejected the notion of an afterworld, karma, liberation (''moksha''), the authority of the sacred scriptures, the Vedas, and the immortality of the self. Of the recognized means of knowledge (''pramana''), the Charvaka recognized only direct perception (''anubhava''). Sources critical of the school depict its followers as hedonists advocating a policy of total opportunism; they are often described as addressing princes, whom they urged to act exclusively in their own self-interest, thus providing the intellectual climate in which a text such as Kautilya’s ''Arthashastra''(“The Science of Material Gain”) could be written.

Although Charvaka doctrine had disappeared by the end of the medieval period, its onetime importance is confirmed by the lengthy attempts to refute it found in Dharmic philosophical texts, which also constitute the main sources for knowledge of the doctrine.

'''BXXX'''

Charvaka (IAST: Cārvāka), originally known as Lokāyata and Bṛhaspatya, '''is the ancient school of Indian materialism'''. The School of Charvaka (those of sweet-talk) or Lokayata (those of the world) has a
history of nearly about three thousand years. Thus, the various schools of
materialism or rationalism which denied a surviving soul and refused to believe
in its transmigration existed in ancient India even prior to the times of the
Buddha. The Charvaka was prominent among the materialist schools of the sixth
century BCE. The influence of this heterodox doctrine is seen in other spheres
of Indian thought.
* Charvaka holds direct perception as proper sources of knowledge hence they rule out ‘inference’ and ‘testimony’ as the source and criterion of knowledge.
* Its philosophy embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects Vedas, Vedic ritualism and supernaturalism.
* Charvakas hold that Matter is the only reality and believe that matter has always existed and will always exist. Matter is both the material and efficient cause of the universe
* This philosophy rejects the concept of gods and souls, as they are beyond perceptual experience. They also regard heaven and hell as non-existent as they are not perceivable.
* Charvakas, believe that truth can be known only through the sense organs.

== Founder - Brhaspati ==
Brihaspati is usually referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy, while Ajita Kesakambali is credited as the forerunner of the Charvakas,

Unfortunately, the basic sources if this system are not available today, destroyed due to lack of royal patronage and due to influence of other philosophers. Much of the primary literature the Brhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), are missing or lost. Most references available in the present day is obtained through cross references scattered in Sanskrit literature.

The Sütra-krtañga is one of the oldest and most important works of the Jain Agama Prakrt literature, Sílãnka, the oldest commentator of the Sutra - krtänga , has used four terms for Cãrvãka, viz. ( 1 ) Bärhaspatya ( 2 ) Lokãyata ( 3 ) Bhütavädin ( 4 ) Vãmamãrgin.

== Etymology of Charvaka ==
The etymology of Charvaka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) is uncertain. The term " Lokãyata » is made of two Sanskrit words, viz. loka and äyata i.e. " world view" or " life view " or " view prevalent among people ". Lokãyata was also known as Cãrvãka who was a disciple of Brhaspati.

Bhattacharya notes that the word Charvaka is of irregular construction, as cara as an adjective means "agreeable, pleasant", but as a noun is another name of Brihaspati, and both derivations are plausible.

The most prominent member of this school during the time of the Buddha was a man named Ajita Kesakambali (Ajita of the Hair Blanket), whose ideas are summarized in a Buddhist Pali text known as Samannaphala Sutta, where he denies the doctrine of transmigration of the soul.

'''According to D. Chattopadhyaya, from about 10th century B. C. to the beginning of Christian era, when slave system was developing, Indian materialistic philosophy including Lokãyata very much developed as a popular system of philosophy and did exert great iufluence among the traders, craftsmen and other lower castes of the then Indian society.'''

The dictionary meaning of Lokāyata (लोकायत) signifies "directed towards, aiming at the world, worldly".

In early to mid 20th century literature, the etymology of Lokayata has been given different interpretations, in part because the primary sources are unavailable, and the meaning has been deduced from divergent secondary literature. The name Lokāyata, for example, is found in Chanakya's Arthashastra, which refers to three ānvīkṣikīs (अन्वीक्षिकी, literally, examining by reason, logical philosophies) – Yoga, Samkhya and Lokāyata.

In 8th century CE Jaina literature, Saddarsanasamuccaya by Haribhadra, Lokayata is stated to be the Hindu school where there is "no God, no samsara (rebirth), no karma, no duty, no fruits of merit, no sin."

The Buddhist Sanskrit work Divyavadana (ca. 200–350 CE) mentions Lokayata, where it is listed among subjects of study, and with the sense of "technical logical science". Shantarakshita and Adi Shankara use the word lokayata to mean materialism, with the latter using the term Lokāyata, not Charvaka. The terms Lokayata and Brhaspatya have been used interchangeably for the Charvaka philosophy of materialism.

== Origin of Lokayata or Charvakas ==
The tenets of the Charvaka atheistic doctrines can be traced to the relatively later composed layers of the Rigveda, while substantial discussions on the Charvaka is found i'''n post-Vedic literature'''.

The primary literature of Charvaka, such as the Brhaspati Sutra is missing or lost. Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras (such as the Arthashastra), sutras and the epics (the Mahabharata and Ramayana) of Hinduism as well '''as from the dialogues of Gautama Buddha and Jain literature'''. These sutras predate 150 BC, because they are mentioned in the Mahābhāṣya (7.3.45).

'''Lokãyata was the oldest heterodox system in India and certainly pre-Jain and pre-Buddhistic. Several references to Lokãyata are available in the oldest texts of Jain and Buddhist literature. The Sütra-krtanga and the Bhagavati Sütra ( V Section ) of Jain literature, and the Samanna-phala-sutra , the Mahãvibhãsã-sãstra , the Mahâyâna-nirvâna sutra and the Lankävatära-sütra of Buddhist literature contain valuable information regarding Lokãyata.'''

The Upãnga literature is equally important in Jainism. In the Räyapasenaiya-sütra, Mahãvlra narrates a story of an ancient king Paesi ( Pradesï ) of Kekaya Pradesa who was unrighteousness personified. The discussion between Paesi and Kesisramana, a follower of Parsvanatha, testifies that even before Mahavira, during the period of Parsvanatha, the materialistic philosophy of Lokayata (Nastika vada) was popular in ancient India. Lokayata in Ancient India and China a paper by Rasik Vihari Joshi outlines the three other references to prove that Buddhist literature was also fully familar with Lokäyata.

The earliest documented Charvaka scholar in India is Ajita Kesakambali. Although materialist schools existed before Charvaka, it was the only school which systematised materialist philosophy by setting them down in the form of aphorisms in the 6th century BC. There was a base text, a collection sūtras or aphorisms and several commentaries were written to explicate the aphorisms.

Its methodology of skepticism is included in the Ramayana, Ayodhya kanda, chapter 108, where Jabāli tries to persuade Rāma to accept the kingdom by using nāstika arguments (Rāma refutes him in chapter 109):<blockquote>"
''O, the highly wise! Arrive at a conclusion, therefore, that there is nothing beyond this Universe. Give precedence to that which meets the eye and turn your back on what is beyond our knowledge. (2.108.17)''"</blockquote>Profuse references are preserved in the Chinese versions of Buddhist writings. The Chinese Buddhist Dictionary entitled Yi-Qie-Jin-Yin-yi by Hui Lin translates M Lu-kã-ye-ti-kã " i.e. Lokäyatika as wicked doctrine. It is interesting to note that Dasa-bhumi-vibhãsã-sãstra translated into Chinese in the latter half of Chin Dynasty during 384-417 A. D. refers to Lokäyatika as Lu-ka- ye-jin " i. e. Lokãyata Sütra. This seems to be none else but Brhaspati Sütra. References to Lokãyata have been preserved in several Chinese writings also.

Charvaka was a living philosophy up to the 12th century in India's historical timeline, after which this system seems to have disappeared without leaving any trace.

== Charvaka Siddhantam ==
# The Charvaka school considers perception as the only reliable source of knowledge. Sensory experience is the only valid source of knowledge.
# It is declared that motion in matter (i.e. atom) is due to the inherent potentiality of matter itself and thus denied the necessity of accepting any super-natural agency such as God to account for creation. Matter itself is the basis of consciousness. C
# Consciousness is produced by the combination of elements. Mind and body are unified. There is no eternal soul apart from body. Since consciousness is connected only with body, body itself is soul. So long there is body, there is soul; when body is destroyed soul is also destroyed. Consciousness becomes stronger by rich food and exercise.
# Since the Charvaka admitted only the immediate evidence of the senses, it accepted only four elements ('''''bhutas''''') – earth, water, fire, air; and denied the fifth the '''''akasha''''', space.It also refused to accept the idea of a soul or an atman as a surviving entity, for the reason their existence cannot be perceived.
# Since memory, feelings, senses and life exist only in body, and not outside the body, they are simply attributes of body.
# The theory of action cannot be proved. There is no result of good or bad actions. Who knows for certain that next birth and next world exist ? Who knows that good and bad actions result in happiness and unhappiness ? We daily experience that sinful persons prosper and enjoy in this world.
# Nature alone is responsible for all happenings without any God. World is self -existent. '''''savabhavamjagathahkaaranamaahu''''' – the evolution is caused by natural laws ('''''svabhava''''' – inherent nature); and there is no need to look for a cause beyond nature ('''''nimtta-tara-nirapeksha''''').
# Only this perceptible world is real, rest is unreal. Body is life. There is no other life after the death of body. As regards Moksha, it remarked that death is the only liberation- '''''Maranameva mokshaha'''''.
# All beings are created by male and female sexes.
# All men are equal. There is no purity or superiority of caste. Social equality is the supreme philosophy. Lokãyata declared that there was no milk in the veins of a Brahmin and blood only in a Südra. Hence all are equal.
'''This epistemological proposition of Charvakas was influential among various schools of in Indian philosophies, by demonstrating a new way of thinking and re-evaluation of past doctrines. Hindu, Buddhist and Jain scholars extensively deployed Charvaka insights on inference in rational re-examination of their own theories.'''

== Comparison with other schools of Hinduism ==
'''Pramanas''' : Charvaka epistemology represents minimalist pramāṇas in Hindu philosophy. The other schools of Hinduism developed and accepted multiple valid forms of pramāṇas. To Charvakas, Pratyakṣa (perception) was the one valid way to knowledge and other means of knowledge were either always conditional or invalid.

Advaita Vedanta scholars considered six means of valid knowledge and to truths: Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation), Anupalabdi (non-perception, cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).

'''Metaphysics''' : Since none of the means of knowing were found to be worthy to establish the invariable connection between middle term and predicate, Charvakas concluded that the inference could not be used to ascertain metaphysical truths. Thus, to Charvakas, the step which the mind takes from the knowledge of something to infer the knowledge of something else could be accounted for by its being based on a former perception or by its being in error. Cases where inference was justified by the result were seen only to be mere coincidences.

Therefore, Charvakas denied metaphysical concepts like reincarnation, an extracorporeal soul, the efficacy of religious rites, other worlds (heaven and hell), fate and accumulation of merit or demerit through the performance of certain actions.

'''Supernatural Causes''' : Charvakas also rejected the use of supernatural causes to describe natural phenomena. To them all natural phenomena was produced spontaneously from the inherent nature of things.

'''Religion''' : Charvakas rejected many of the standard religious conceptions of Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, such as afterlife, reincarnation, samsara, karma and religious rites. They were critical of the Vedas, as well as Buddhist scriptures.

'''Critics of Vedas''' : The Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha with commentaries by Madhavacharya describes the Charvakas as critical of Vedas, materialists without morals and ethics. To Charvakas, the text states, the Vedas suffered from several faults – errors in transmission across generations, untruth, self-contradiction and tautology. The Charvakas pointed out the disagreements, debates and mutual rejection by karmakanda Vedic priests and jñānakanda Vedic priests, as proof that either one of them is wrong or both are wrong, as both cannot be right.

'''Ethics and Morals''' : Charvakas rejected the need for ethics or morals, and suggested that "while life remains, let a man live happily, let him feed on ghee even though he runs in debt". Vedic tenets lay down dharma as applicable to a different people in different walks of life.

== Charvaka Literature ==
No independent works on Charvaka philosophy can be found except for a few sūtras composed by Brihaspati. The 8th century Tattvopaplavasimha of Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa with Madhyamaka influence is a significant source of Charvaka philosophy. Shatdarshan Samuchay and Sarvadarśanasaṅ̇graha of Vidyaranya are a few other works which elucidate Charvaka thought.

The Brahma- Jäla-Sütra and the Mätangi-Sütra give ample evidence that the followers of Lokãyata contributed a lot to the development of secular sciences such as medicine, astronomy and agronomy.

In the epic Mahabharata, Book 12 Chapter 39, a villain who dresses up like a scholar, self appoints himself as spokesperson for all scholars, and who then advises Yudhishthira to act unethically, is named Charvaka.

One of the widely studied references to the Charvaka philosophy is the Sarva-darśana-saṅgraha (etymologically all-philosophy-collection), a famous work of 14th century Advaita Vedanta philosopher Mādhava Vidyāraṇya from South India, which starts with a chapter on the Charvaka system. After invoking, in the Prologue of the book, the Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu ("by whom the earth and rest were produced"), Vidyāraṇya asks, in the first chapter:<blockquote>"
''"but how can we attribute to the Divine Being the giving of supreme felicity, when such a notion has been utterly abolished by Charvaka, the crest-gem of the atheistic school, the follower of the doctrine of Brihaspati? The efforts of Charvaka are indeed hard to be eradicated, for the majority of living beings hold by the current refrain:

While life is yours, live joyously;
None can escape Death's searching eye:
When once this frame of ours they burn,

How shall it e'er again return?''"</blockquote>

Ain-i-Akbari, a record of the Mughal Emperor Akbar's court, '''mentions a symposium of philosophers of all faiths held in 1578 at Akbar's insistence'''. '''AKBAR WAS A TERRORIST''' In the text, the Mughal historian Abu'l-Fazl Mubarak summarizes Charvaka philosophy as "unenlightened" and that their literature as "lasting memorials to their ignorance". He notes that Charvakas considered paradise as "the state in which man lives as he chooses, without control of another", while hell as "the state in which he lives subject to another's rule". On state craft, Charvakas believe, states Mubarak, that it is best when "knowledge of just administration and benevolent government" is practiced.

Sanskrit poems and plays like the Naiṣadha-carita, Prabodha-candrodaya, Āgama-dambara, Vidvanmoda-taraṅgiṇī and Kādambarī contain representations of the Charvaka thought. However, the authors of these works were thoroughly opposed to materialism and tried to portray the Charvaka in unfavourable light. Therefore, their works should only be accepted critically.

== Controversy on reliability of sources ==
Bhattacharya states that the claims against Charvaka of hedonism, lack of any morality and ethics and disregard for spirituality '''is from texts of competing religious philosophies (Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism)''', '''Its primary sources, along with commentaries by Charvaka scholars is missing or lost.''' This reliance on indirect sources raises the question of reliability and whether there was a bias and exaggeration in representing the views of Charvakas. '''Bhattacharya points out that multiple manuscripts are inconsistent, with key passages alleging hedonism and immorality missing in many manuscripts of the same text.'''

Buddhists, Jains, Advaita Vedantins and Nyāya philosophers considered the Charvakas as one of their opponents and tried to refute their views. These refutations are indirect sources of Charvaka philosophy. The arguments and reasoning approach Charvakas deployed were significant that they continued to be referred to, even after all the authentic Charvaka/Lokāyata texts had been lost. However, the representation of the Charvaka thought in these works is not always firmly grounded in first-hand knowledge of Charvaka texts and should be viewed critically.

== References ==
# (Radhakrishnan 1957, pp. 187, 227–234);
# V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school.", doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x
# '''Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Cārvāka/Lokāyata, Anthem Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0857284334</nowiki>,'''
# '''MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Cārvāka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16'''
# '''KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120816077</nowiki>, Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Cārvāka system, is a Hindu system.";'''
# N. V. Isaeva (1 January 1993). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. SUNY Press. p. 27. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7</nowiki>. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
# Sharma, Chandradhar (1987). A critical survey of Indian philosophy (Reprinted. ed.). Delhi''': M. Banarsidass. p. 40. <nowiki>ISBN 9788120803657</nowiki>. Retrieved 7 July 2015. all MB texts R suspect as he is used BY Indologists like wendy doniger'''
# Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1992). Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism (7th ed.). New Delhi: People's Publishing House. p. 1. <nowiki>ISBN 81-7007-006-6</nowiki>.
# Haribhadrasūri (Translator: M Jain, 1989), Saddarsanasamuccaya, Asiatic Society, OCLC 255495691
# CV Vaidya (2001). Epic India, Or, India as Described in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Asian Educational Services. p. 503. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-206-1564-9</nowiki>. Quote: These atheistical doctrines existed from the earliest times as their traces are visible even in the Rigveda in some hymns of which Prof Max Muller pointed out the curious traces of an incipient scepticism. (...) Two things are therefore clear that the Brihaspatya tenets also called Charvaka tenets are of a very old standing..."
# Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Charvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3
# A. K. Sinha (1994), Traces of Materialism in Early Vedic Thought: A Study, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 75, No. 1/4
# Bhattacharya, Ramkrishna. Materialism in India: A Synoptic View. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
# Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2010), What the Cārvākas Originally Meant?, Journal of Indian Philosophy, 38(6)
# D Chatterjee (1977), Skepticism and Indian philosophy, Philosophy East and West, 27(2)
# Original Sanskrit version:Sarva-darsana-sangraha; English version: The Charvaka System with commentary by Madhava Acharya, Translators: Cowell and Gough (1882)
# Joshi, Dinkar. Glimpses of Indian Culture. Star Publications (P) Ltd, Delhi. P. 37. <nowiki>ISBN 81-7650-190-5</nowiki>.
# Shanti Parva, Chapter XXXIX The Mahabharata, KM Ganguli (Translator)
# Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Eighth Reprint Edition. (University of Calcutta: 1984)
# Bhatta, Jayarashi. Tattvopaplavasimha (Status as a Carvaka text disputed)
# Bhattacharya, Ramakrishna (2002). "Cārvāka Fragments: A New Collection". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 30 (6)
# '''Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1959) Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism. New Delhi: People's Publishing House.'''
# '''Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1964) Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction. New Delhi: People's Pub. House.'''
# '''Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1994). Carvaka/Lokayata: An Anthology of Source Materials and Some Recent Studies. New Delhi: People's Publishing House.'''
# Gokhale, Pradeep P. The Cārvāka Theory of Pramāṇas: A Restatement, Philosophy East and West (1993).
# '''Koller, John M. Skepticism in Early Indian Thought, Philosophy East and West (1977).'''
# '''Nambiar, Sita Krishna (1971). Prabodhacandrodaya of Krsna Misra. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.'''
# Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-691-01958-4</nowiki>.
# Salunkhe, A. H. Aastikashiromani Chaarvaaka (in Marathi).
# '''Sen, Amartya (2005). The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. London: Allen Lane. <nowiki>ISBN 0-7139-9687-0</nowiki>.'''
# '''Jayarāśi, a 9th-century Indian philosopher associated with Cārvāka / Lokāyata school, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2011)'''
# '''Lokāyata/Cārvāka – Indian Materialism (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)'''

Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)

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Samkhya sashtra or Sankhya (Sanskrit: साङ्ख्य शास्त्रम्) is one of the '''Shad Darshanas (six worldviews??)''' or the Veda Upangas. It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, and it was influential on other schools of Indian philosophy.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya philosophy is based on systematic enumeration and rational examination. It's philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of Hindu ethics. Samkhya || साङ्ख्य is, thus, depending on the context, means "to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to number, rational".
* Samkhya is strongly dualist accepting the roles of प्रकृति || Prakriti and पुरुष || Purusha in the Creation of this Universe.
* Samkhya siddhanta accepts that enumeration of truth can be done by using three of six accepted प्रमाणाः || pramanas (proofs).
* The Trigunas exist in all life forms in different proportions.
* It 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the purusha or soul. The evolutionary process involves Pradhana (Prakruti), Purusha, Mahat (Buddhi), Ahankaraara, Pancha Jnanendriyas, Pancha Karmendriyas, Panchatanmatras, Panchabhutas and Manas
* Sankhya denies that reaching God is the goal of life.
* While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, a key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god".
* The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered very relevant by the Samkhya philosophers.
* Samkhya school considers मोक्ष || moksha as a natural quest of every soul.

== Founder - Kapila Maharshi ==
Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school.

Kapila appears in ऋग्वेद || Rigveda, but context suggests that the word means "reddish brown color". Both Kapila as a "seer" and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5.2 in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (~300 BCE), suggesting Kapila's and Samkhya philosophy's origins may predate it.

Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila,
* Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila, called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.
* A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently state Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching, and a much later scholar named Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas. Isvarakrsna is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified Samkhya theories of Pancasikha, many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in the 6th century CE.
* Bhagavadgeeta discusses the Samkhya yoga.

== Origin of Samkhya ==
'''Some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins and that the Sankhya philosophy is, in its essence, not only atheistic but also inimical to the Veda (Richard Garbe).''' While Dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, "The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex". Disagreeing with it Arthur Keith, for example in 1925, stated, "Samkhya owes its origin to the Vedic-Upanisadic-epic heritage is quite evident," and "Samkhya is most naturally derived out of the speculations in the Vedas, Brahmanas and the Upanishads". Many other scholars have discussed the probable reasons for the origin of this school of thought, though none of them can be proved or accepted as totally factual.

Between 1938 and 1969, two previously unknown manuscript editions of '''Yuktidipika''' were discovered and published. युक्तिदिपिका || Yuktidipika is an ancient review and has emerged as the most important commentary on Samkhyakarika – itself an ancient key text of the Samkhya school. This discovery and recent scholarship(Paul Hacker and others) suggests Samkhya was well established and existed vedic period in ancient India. However, almost nothing is preserved about the centuries when these ancient Samkhya scholars lived.

'''Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state that the newly discovered literature hints, but does not conclusively prove, that Samkhya may be the oldest school of Indian philosophy,''' one that evolved over time and influenced major schools, as well as Buddhism and Jainism. These scholars place the earliest references to Samkhya ideas in the Vedic period literature of India (~1500 BCE to ~400 BCE).

== Sankhya Siddhantam ==
'''Pramanas'''

It is based on systematic enumeration and using the three of six प्रमाणाः pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These include
* प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणाः || pratyaksha-pramana (perception),
* अनुमानप्रमाणाः anumana-pramana (inference) and
* शब्दप्रमाणाः sabda-pramana (aptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).
'''Dvaita Tatvam'''

Samkhya is strongly द्वैत || Dvaita (dualist) in its approach. Samkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities; पुरुष || Purusha (consciousness) and प्रकृति || Prakrti (matter). जीव || Jiva (a living being) is that state in which Purusha is bonded to Prakriti. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of बुद्धि || buddhi (intellect) and अहङ्कार || Ahankara (ego consciousness). The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakrti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called कैवल्य || kaivalya (liberation), by the Samkhya school.

'''Trigunas'''

Samkhya is known for its theory of गुण || gunas (qualities, innate tendencies). Guna, it states, are of three types: Satva, Rajas and Tamas.
* सत्त्व || Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive
* रजस || Rajas is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad
* तमस || Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative
Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.

'''Twenty Five Tattvas'''

It 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles.

[[File:Samkhya_Siddhantam.jpg|1148x1148px]]

'''Moksha for the Purusha'''

Samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every soul.

The Samkhya school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge. Samkhya considered प्रत्यक्ष || Pratyaksha or दर्शनम् || Darsanam (direct sense of eyes and perception), अनुमान || Anumana (inference), and शब्द || Sabda or अप्तवचन ||| Aptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shastras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or pramana. Unlike few other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas as epistemically proper: उपमान || Upamana (comparison and analogy), अर्थापत्ति || Arthaapatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or अनुपलब्दि || Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).

Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of prakruti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha. The 23 evolutes of prakuti are categorized as follows:

The Supreme Good is moksha which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain... in the realisation of the Self as Self pure and simple.

—Samkhyakarika I.3 Samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every soul. The Samkhyakarika states,

As the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf,
so the Prakriti functions for the sake of moksha of the spirit.

—Samkhya karika, Verse 57
Samkhya regards अविद्या || avidya (ignorance) as the root cause of suffering and संसार || Samsara (bondage). Samkhya states that the way out of this suffering is through विवेक || viveka (knowledge). मोक्ष || Moksha (liberation), states Samkhya school, results from knowing the difference between prakruti (avyakta-vyakta) and purusha (jña).

Purusha, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of prakrti such as बुद्धि || buddhi (intellect) and अहङ्कार || ahamkara (ego). This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that Purusha is distinct from prakrti, is more than empirical ego, and that Purusha is deepest conscious self within, the Self gains कैवल्य || kaivalya (isolation) and मोक्ष || moksha (liberation).

Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moksha is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of liberation, where Sattva guna predominates.

== Emergence as a distinct philosophy ==
The early texts of the Vedic period contain references to elements of Samkhya philosophy. However, the Samkhya ideas had not distilled and congealed into a distinct, complete philosophy. Sometime about the 5th century BCE, Samkhya thought from various sources started coalescing into a distinct, complete philosophy, according to some scholars.
* In the beginning this was Self alone, in the shape of a person (purusha). He looking around saw nothing but his Self (Atman). He first said, "This is I", therefore he became I by name. (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1)

* Philosophical texts such as the Katha Upanishad in verses 3.10-13 and 6.7-11 describe a well defined concept of Purusha and other concepts of Samkhya.
* The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in chapter 6.13 describes Samkhya with Yoga philosophy.
* Bhagavad Gita in Chap 2 provides textual evidence of Samkhya terminology and concepts.
* Katha Upanishad conceives the Purusha (cosmic spirit, consciousness) as same as the individual soul (Atman, Self).
* The Mokshadharma chapter of Shanti Parva (Book of Peace) in the Mahabharata epic, composed between 400 BCE to 400 CE, explains Samkhya ideas along with other extant philosophies, and then lists numerous scholars in recognition of their philosophical contributions to various Indian traditions, and therein at least three Samkhya scholars can be recognized – Kapila, Asuri and Pancasikha.
* The 12th chapter of the Buddhist text Buddhacarita suggests Samkhya philosophical tools of reliable reasoning were well formed by about 5th century BCE.
Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for first time in chapter 6.13 of the Shvetashvatra Upanishad, as सांख्य योग अधिगम्य || samkhya-yoga-adhigamya (literally, "to be understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline"). Bhagavad Gita identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge. The three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya. The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the भक्ति || bhakti (devotion) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman of Vedanta.

== Vedic and Upanishad Influences ==
The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, the karikas, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. The earliest mention of dualism is in the Rigveda, नासदीय सूक्त || Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe): Rigveda 10.129 hymn is one of the roots of the Samkhya.

—Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22 The emphasis of duality between सत् || sat (existence) and असत् || asat (non-existence) in the Nasadiya Sukta of the Rigveda is similar to the व्यक्त-अव्यक्त || vyakta–avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Purusha may also have influenced Samkhya. The Samkhya notion of buddhi or महत् || mahat is similar to the notion of हिरण्यगर्भ || hiranyagarbha, which appears in both the Rigveda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.

Higher than the senses, stand the objects of senses. Higher than objects of senses, stands mind. Higher than mind, stands intellect. Higher than intellect, stands the great self. Higher than the great self, stands Avyaktam. Higher than Avyaktam, stands Purusha. Higher than this, there is nothing. He is the final goal and the highest point. In all beings, dwells this Purusha, as आत्मन || Atman (soul), invisible, concealed. He is only seen by the keenest thought, by the sublest of those thinkers who see into the subtle.

—Katha Upanishad 3.10-13. The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. 900–600 BCE) contain speculations along the lines of classical Samkhya philosophy.

The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced back to the notion of ahamkara in chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and chapter 7.25 of the Chandogya Upanishad.

Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of सत् || sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and Shvetashvatara Upanishads.

Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni developed the idea that pure consciousness was the innermost essence of a human being. The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from this idea. The enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad and Yajnavalkya–Maitri sambhashanam in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

This declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of Samkhya. Hear, now, of the integrated wisdom with which, Partha, you will cast off the bonds of karma.

—Bhagavad Gita 2.39

== Other Textual Material ==
The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika (c. 200 CE or 350–450 CE) of Isvarak???a. There were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are available today.

Isvarak???a in his Karika describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila, through Asuri and Pañcasikha to himself. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called ?a??itantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost. The text was imported and translated into Chinese about the middle of the 6th century CE. The records of Al Biruni, the Persian visitor to India in the early 11th century, suggests Samkhyakarika was an established and definitive text in India in his times.

—Samkhya Karika Verse 4–6,
The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia was the Gau?apada Bha?ya attributed to Gau?apada, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Richard King, Professor of Religious Studies, thinks it is unlikely that Gau?apada could have authored both texts, given the differences between the two philosophies. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidipika (c. 6th century CE) and Vacaspati’s Sankhyatattvakaumudi (c. 10th century CE).

The Sankhyapravacana Sutra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika. Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Sa?khyasutrav?tti, c. 15th century CE), Vijñanabhik?u (Sa?khyapravacanabha?ya, c. 16th century CE), Mahadeva (v?ttisara, c. 17th century CE) and Nagesa (Laghusa?khyasutrav?tti). According to Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.

The 13th century text Sarvadarsanasangraha contains 16 chapters, each devoted to a separate school of Indian philosophy. The 13th chapter in this book contains a description of the Samkhya philosophy.

== Lost Textual References ==
In his Studies in Samkhya Philosophy, K.C. Bhattacharya writes:

Much of Samkhya literature appears to have been lost, and there seems to be no continuity of tradition from ancient times to the age of the commentators...The interpretation of all ancient systems requires a constructive effort; but, while in the case of some systems where we have a large volume of literature and a continuity of tradition, the construction is mainly of the nature of translation of ideas into modern concepts, here in Samkhya the construction at many places involves supplying of missing links from one's imagination. It is risky work, but unless one does it one cannot be said to understand Samkhya as a philosophy. It is a task that one is obliged to undertake. It is a fascinating task because Samkhya is a bold constructive philosophy.

== '''References''' ==
'''Presently Wikipedia'''

Charvaka Darshana (चार्वाकदर्शनम्)

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== परिचय || Introduction ==
Charvaka, also called Lokayata (Sanskrit: “Worldly Ones”), a quasi-philosophical Indian school of materialists who rejected the notion of an afterworld, karma, liberation (''moksha''), the authority of the sacred scriptures, the Vedas, and the immortality of the self. Of the recognized means of knowledge (''pramana''), the Charvaka recognized only direct perception (''anubhava''). Sources critical of the school depict its followers as hedonists advocating a policy of total opportunism; they are often described as addressing princes, whom they urged to act exclusively in their own self-interest, thus providing the intellectual climate in which a text such as Kautilya’s ''Arthashastra''(“The Science of Material Gain”) could be written.

Although Charvaka doctrine had disappeared by the end of the medieval period, its onetime importance is confirmed by the lengthy attempts to refute it found in Dharmic philosophical texts, which also constitute the main sources for knowledge of the doctrine.

'''BXXX'''

Charvaka (IAST: Cārvāka), originally known as Lokāyata and Bṛhaspatya, '''is the ancient school of Indian materialism'''. The School of Charvaka (those of sweet-talk) or Lokayata (those of the world) has a
history of nearly about three thousand years. Thus, the various schools of
materialism or rationalism which denied a surviving soul and refused to believe
in its transmigration existed in ancient India even prior to the times of the
Buddha. The Charvaka was prominent among the materialist schools of the sixth
century BCE. The influence of this heterodox doctrine is seen in other spheres
of Indian thought.
* Charvaka holds direct perception as proper sources of knowledge hence they rule out ‘inference’ and ‘testimony’ as the source and criterion of knowledge.
* Its philosophy embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects Vedas, Vedic ritualism and supernaturalism.
* Charvakas hold that Matter is the only reality and believe that matter has always existed and will always exist. Matter is both the material and efficient cause of the universe
* This philosophy rejects the concept of gods and souls, as they are beyond perceptual experience. They also regard heaven and hell as non-existent as they are not perceivable.
* Charvakas, believe that truth can be known only through the sense organs.

== Founder - Brhaspati ==
Brihaspati is usually referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy, while Ajita Kesakambali is credited as the forerunner of the Charvakas,

Unfortunately, the basic sources if this system are not available today, destroyed due to lack of royal patronage and due to influence of other philosophers. Much of the primary literature the Brhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), are missing or lost. Most references available in the present day is obtained through cross references scattered in Sanskrit literature.

The Sütra-krtañga is one of the oldest and most important works of the Jain Agama Prakrt literature, Sílãnka, the oldest commentator of the Sutra - krtänga , has used four terms for Cãrvãka, viz. ( 1 ) Bärhaspatya ( 2 ) Lokãyata ( 3 ) Bhütavädin ( 4 ) Vãmamãrgin.

== Etymology of Charvaka ==
The etymology of Charvaka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) is uncertain. The term " Lokãyata » is made of two Sanskrit words, viz. loka and äyata i.e. " world view" or " life view " or " view prevalent among people ". Lokãyata was also known as Cãrvãka who was a disciple of Brhaspati.

Bhattacharya notes that the word Charvaka is of irregular construction, as cara as an adjective means "agreeable, pleasant", but as a noun is another name of Brihaspati, and both derivations are plausible.

The most prominent member of this school during the time of the Buddha was a man named Ajita Kesakambali (Ajita of the Hair Blanket), whose ideas are summarized in a Buddhist Pali text known as Samannaphala Sutta, where he denies the doctrine of transmigration of the soul.

'''According to D. Chattopadhyaya, from about 10th century B. C. to the beginning of Christian era, when slave system was developing, Indian materialistic philosophy including Lokãyata very much developed as a popular system of philosophy and did exert great iufluence among the traders, craftsmen and other lower castes of the then Indian society.'''

The dictionary meaning of Lokāyata (लोकायत) signifies "directed towards, aiming at the world, worldly".

In early to mid 20th century literature, the etymology of Lokayata has been given different interpretations, in part because the primary sources are unavailable, and the meaning has been deduced from divergent secondary literature. The name Lokāyata, for example, is found in Chanakya's Arthashastra, which refers to three ānvīkṣikīs (अन्वीक्षिकी, literally, examining by reason, logical philosophies) – Yoga, Samkhya and Lokāyata.

In 8th century CE Jaina literature, Saddarsanasamuccaya by Haribhadra, Lokayata is stated to be the Hindu school where there is "no God, no samsara (rebirth), no karma, no duty, no fruits of merit, no sin."

The Buddhist Sanskrit work Divyavadana (ca. 200–350 CE) mentions Lokayata, where it is listed among subjects of study, and with the sense of "technical logical science". Shantarakshita and Adi Shankara use the word lokayata to mean materialism, with the latter using the term Lokāyata, not Charvaka. The terms Lokayata and Brhaspatya have been used interchangeably for the Charvaka philosophy of materialism.

== Origin of Lokayata or Charvakas ==
The tenets of the Charvaka atheistic doctrines can be traced to the relatively later composed layers of the Rigveda, while substantial discussions on the Charvaka is found i'''n post-Vedic literature'''.

The primary literature of Charvaka, such as the Brhaspati Sutra is missing or lost. Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras (such as the Arthashastra), sutras and the epics (the Mahabharata and Ramayana) of Hinduism as well '''as from the dialogues of Gautama Buddha and Jain literature'''. These sutras predate 150 BC, because they are mentioned in the Mahābhāṣya (7.3.45).

'''Lokãyata was the oldest heterodox system in India and certainly pre-Jain and pre-Buddhistic. Several references to Lokãyata are available in the oldest texts of Jain and Buddhist literature. The Sütra-krtanga and the Bhagavati Sütra ( V Section ) of Jain literature, and the Samanna-phala-sutra , the Mahãvibhãsã-sãstra , the Mahâyâna-nirvâna sutra and the Lankävatära-sütra of Buddhist literature contain valuable information regarding Lokãyata.'''

The Upãnga literature is equally important in Jainism. In the Räyapasenaiya-sütra, Mahãvlra narrates a story of an ancient king Paesi ( Pradesï ) of Kekaya Pradesa who was unrighteousness personified. The discussion between Paesi and Kesisramana, a follower of Parsvanatha, testifies that even before Mahavira, during the period of Parsvanatha, the materialistic philosophy of Lokayata (Nastika vada) was popular in ancient India. Lokayata in Ancient India and China a paper by Rasik Vihari Joshi outlines the three other references to prove that Buddhist literature was also fully familar with Lokäyata.

The earliest documented Charvaka scholar in India is Ajita Kesakambali. Although materialist schools existed before Charvaka, it was the only school which systematised materialist philosophy by setting them down in the form of aphorisms in the 6th century BC. There was a base text, a collection sūtras or aphorisms and several commentaries were written to explicate the aphorisms.

Its methodology of skepticism is included in the Ramayana, Ayodhya kanda, chapter 108, where Jabāli tries to persuade Rāma to accept the kingdom by using nāstika arguments (Rāma refutes him in chapter 109):<blockquote>"
''O, the highly wise! Arrive at a conclusion, therefore, that there is nothing beyond this Universe. Give precedence to that which meets the eye and turn your back on what is beyond our knowledge. (2.108.17)''"</blockquote>Profuse references are preserved in the Chinese versions of Buddhist writings. The Chinese Buddhist Dictionary entitled Yi-Qie-Jin-Yin-yi by Hui Lin translates M Lu-kã-ye-ti-kã " i.e. Lokäyatika as wicked doctrine. It is interesting to note that Dasa-bhumi-vibhãsã-sãstra translated into Chinese in the latter half of Chin Dynasty during 384-417 A. D. refers to Lokäyatika as Lu-ka- ye-jin " i. e. Lokãyata Sütra. This seems to be none else but Brhaspati Sütra. References to Lokãyata have been preserved in several Chinese writings also.

Charvaka was a living philosophy up to the 12th century in India's historical timeline, after which this system seems to have disappeared without leaving any trace.

== Charvaka Siddhantam ==
# The Charvaka school considers perception as the only reliable source of knowledge. Sensory experience is the only valid source of knowledge.
# It is declared that motion in matter (i.e. atom) is due to the inherent potentiality of matter itself and thus denied the necessity of accepting any super-natural agency such as God to account for creation. Matter itself is the basis of consciousness. C
# Consciousness is produced by the combination of elements. Mind and body are unified. There is no eternal soul apart from body. Since consciousness is connected only with body, body itself is soul. So long there is body, there is soul; when body is destroyed soul is also destroyed. Consciousness becomes stronger by rich food and exercise.
# Since the Charvaka admitted only the immediate evidence of the senses, it accepted only four elements ('''''bhutas''''') – earth, water, fire, air; and denied the fifth the '''''akasha''''', space.It also refused to accept the idea of a soul or an atman as a surviving entity, for the reason their existence cannot be perceived.
# Since memory, feelings, senses and life exist only in body, and not outside the body, they are simply attributes of body.
# The theory of action cannot be proved. There is no result of good or bad actions. Who knows for certain that next birth and next world exist ? Who knows that good and bad actions result in happiness and unhappiness ? We daily experience that sinful persons prosper and enjoy in this world.
# Nature alone is responsible for all happenings without any God. World is self -existent. '''''savabhavamjagathahkaaranamaahu''''' – the evolution is caused by natural laws ('''''svabhava''''' – inherent nature); and there is no need to look for a cause beyond nature ('''''nimtta-tara-nirapeksha''''').
# Only this perceptible world is real, rest is unreal. Body is life. There is no other life after the death of body. As regards Moksha, it remarked that death is the only liberation- '''''Maranameva mokshaha'''''.
# All beings are created by male and female sexes.
# All men are equal. There is no purity or superiority of caste. Social equality is the supreme philosophy. Lokãyata declared that there was no milk in the veins of a Brahmin and blood only in a Südra. Hence all are equal.
'''This epistemological proposition of Charvakas was influential among various schools of in Indian philosophies, by demonstrating a new way of thinking and re-evaluation of past doctrines. Hindu, Buddhist and Jain scholars extensively deployed Charvaka insights on inference in rational re-examination of their own theories.'''

== Comparison with other schools of Hinduism ==
'''Pramanas''' : Charvaka epistemology represents minimalist pramāṇas in Hindu philosophy. The other schools of Hinduism developed and accepted multiple valid forms of pramāṇas. To Charvakas, Pratyakṣa (perception) was the one valid way to knowledge and other means of knowledge were either always conditional or invalid.

Advaita Vedanta scholars considered six means of valid knowledge and to truths: Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation), Anupalabdi (non-perception, cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).

'''Metaphysics''' : Since none of the means of knowing were found to be worthy to establish the invariable connection between middle term and predicate, Charvakas concluded that the inference could not be used to ascertain metaphysical truths. Thus, to Charvakas, the step which the mind takes from the knowledge of something to infer the knowledge of something else could be accounted for by its being based on a former perception or by its being in error. Cases where inference was justified by the result were seen only to be mere coincidences.

Therefore, Charvakas denied metaphysical concepts like reincarnation, an extracorporeal soul, the efficacy of religious rites, other worlds (heaven and hell), fate and accumulation of merit or demerit through the performance of certain actions.

'''Supernatural Causes''' : Charvakas also rejected the use of supernatural causes to describe natural phenomena. To them all natural phenomena was produced spontaneously from the inherent nature of things.

'''Religion''' : Charvakas rejected many of the standard religious conceptions of Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, such as afterlife, reincarnation, samsara, karma and religious rites. They were critical of the Vedas, as well as Buddhist scriptures.

'''Critics of Vedas''' : The Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha with commentaries by Madhavacharya describes the Charvakas as critical of Vedas, materialists without morals and ethics. To Charvakas, the text states, the Vedas suffered from several faults – errors in transmission across generations, untruth, self-contradiction and tautology. The Charvakas pointed out the disagreements, debates and mutual rejection by karmakanda Vedic priests and jñānakanda Vedic priests, as proof that either one of them is wrong or both are wrong, as both cannot be right.

'''Ethics and Morals''' : Charvakas rejected the need for ethics or morals, and suggested that "while life remains, let a man live happily, let him feed on ghee even though he runs in debt". Vedic tenets lay down dharma as applicable to a different people in different walks of life.

== Charvaka Literature ==
No independent works on Charvaka philosophy can be found except for a few sūtras composed by Brihaspati. The 8th century Tattvopaplavasimha of Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa with Madhyamaka influence is a significant source of Charvaka philosophy. Shatdarshan Samuchay and Sarvadarśanasaṅ̇graha of Vidyaranya are a few other works which elucidate Charvaka thought.

The Brahma- Jäla-Sütra and the Mätangi-Sütra give ample evidence that the followers of Lokãyata contributed a lot to the development of secular sciences such as medicine, astronomy and agronomy.

In the epic Mahabharata, Book 12 Chapter 39, a villain who dresses up like a scholar, self appoints himself as spokesperson for all scholars, and who then advises Yudhishthira to act unethically, is named Charvaka.

One of the widely studied references to the Charvaka philosophy is the Sarva-darśana-saṅgraha (etymologically all-philosophy-collection), a famous work of 14th century Advaita Vedanta philosopher Mādhava Vidyāraṇya from South India, which starts with a chapter on the Charvaka system. After invoking, in the Prologue of the book, the Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu ("by whom the earth and rest were produced"), Vidyāraṇya asks, in the first chapter:<blockquote>"
''"but how can we attribute to the Divine Being the giving of supreme felicity, when such a notion has been utterly abolished by Charvaka, the crest-gem of the atheistic school, the follower of the doctrine of Brihaspati? The efforts of Charvaka are indeed hard to be eradicated, for the majority of living beings hold by the current refrain:

While life is yours, live joyously;
None can escape Death's searching eye:
When once this frame of ours they burn,

How shall it e'er again return?''"</blockquote>

Ain-i-Akbari, a record of the Mughal Emperor Akbar's court, '''mentions a symposium of philosophers of all faiths held in 1578 at Akbar's insistence'''. '''AKBAR WAS A TERRORIST''' In the text, the Mughal historian Abu'l-Fazl Mubarak summarizes Charvaka philosophy as "unenlightened" and that their literature as "lasting memorials to their ignorance". He notes that Charvakas considered paradise as "the state in which man lives as he chooses, without control of another", while hell as "the state in which he lives subject to another's rule". On state craft, Charvakas believe, states Mubarak, that it is best when "knowledge of just administration and benevolent government" is practiced.

Sanskrit poems and plays like the Naiṣadha-carita, Prabodha-candrodaya, Āgama-dambara, Vidvanmoda-taraṅgiṇī and Kādambarī contain representations of the Charvaka thought. However, the authors of these works were thoroughly opposed to materialism and tried to portray the Charvaka in unfavourable light. Therefore, their works should only be accepted critically.

== Controversy on reliability of sources ==
Bhattacharya states that the claims against Charvaka of hedonism, lack of any morality and ethics and disregard for spirituality '''is from texts of competing religious philosophies (Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism)''', '''Its primary sources, along with commentaries by Charvaka scholars is missing or lost.''' This reliance on indirect sources raises the question of reliability and whether there was a bias and exaggeration in representing the views of Charvakas. '''Bhattacharya points out that multiple manuscripts are inconsistent, with key passages alleging hedonism and immorality missing in many manuscripts of the same text.'''

Buddhists, Jains, Advaita Vedantins and Nyāya philosophers considered the Charvakas as one of their opponents and tried to refute their views. These refutations are indirect sources of Charvaka philosophy. The arguments and reasoning approach Charvakas deployed were significant that they continued to be referred to, even after all the authentic Charvaka/Lokāyata texts had been lost. However, the representation of the Charvaka thought in these works is not always firmly grounded in first-hand knowledge of Charvaka texts and should be viewed critically.

== References ==
# (Radhakrishnan 1957, pp. 187, 227–234);
# V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school.", doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x
# Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Cārvāka/Lokāyata, Anthem Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0857284334</nowiki>,
# MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Cārvāka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16
# KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120816077</nowiki>, Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Cārvāka system, is a Hindu system.";
# N. V. Isaeva (1 January 1993). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. SUNY Press. p. 27. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7</nowiki>. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
# Sharma, Chandradhar (1987). A critical survey of Indian philosophy (Reprinted. ed.). Delhi''': M. Banarsidass. p. 40. <nowiki>ISBN 9788120803657</nowiki>. Retrieved 7 July 2015. all MB texts R suspect as he is used BY IOndologists like wendy doniger'''
# Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1992). Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism (7th ed.). New Delhi: People's Publishing House. p. 1. <nowiki>ISBN 81-7007-006-6</nowiki>.
# Haribhadrasūri (Translator: M Jain, 1989), Saddarsanasamuccaya, Asiatic Society, OCLC 255495691
# CV Vaidya (2001). Epic India, Or, India as Described in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Asian Educational Services. p. 503. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-206-1564-9</nowiki>. Quote: These atheistical doctrines existed from the earliest times as their traces are visible even in the Rigveda in some hymns of which Prof Max Muller pointed out the curious traces of an incipient scepticism. (...) Two things are therefore clear that the Brihaspatya tenets also called Charvaka tenets are of a very old standing..."
# Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Charvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3
# A. K. Sinha (1994), Traces of Materialism in Early Vedic Thought: A Study, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 75, No. 1/4
# Bhattacharya, Ramkrishna. Materialism in India: A Synoptic View. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
# Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2010), What the Cārvākas Originally Meant?, Journal of Indian Philosophy, 38(6)
# D Chatterjee (1977), Skepticism and Indian philosophy, Philosophy East and West, 27(2)
# Original Sanskrit version:Sarva-darsana-sangraha; English version: The Charvaka System with commentary by Madhava Acharya, Translators: Cowell and Gough (1882)
# Joshi, Dinkar. Glimpses of Indian Culture. Star Publications (P) Ltd, Delhi. P. 37. <nowiki>ISBN 81-7650-190-5</nowiki>.
# Shanti Parva, Chapter XXXIX The Mahabharata, KM Ganguli (Translator)
# Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Eighth Reprint Edition. (University of Calcutta: 1984)
# Bhatta, Jayarashi. Tattvopaplavasimha (Status as a Carvaka text disputed)
# Bhattacharya, Ramakrishna (2002). "Cārvāka Fragments: A New Collection". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 30 (6)
# '''Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1959) Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism. New Delhi: People's Publishing House.'''
# '''Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1964) Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction. New Delhi: People's Pub. House.'''
# '''Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1994). Carvaka/Lokayata: An Anthology of Source Materials and Some Recent Studies. New Delhi: People's Publishing House.'''
# Gokhale, Pradeep P. The Cārvāka Theory of Pramāṇas: A Restatement, Philosophy East and West (1993).
# Koller, John M. Skepticism in Early Indian Thought, Philosophy East and West (1977).
# Nambiar, Sita Krishna (1971). Prabodhacandrodaya of Krsna Misra. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
# Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-691-01958-4</nowiki>.
# Salunkhe, A. H. Aastikashiromani Chaarvaaka (in Marathi).
# '''Sen, Amartya (2005). The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. London: Allen Lane. <nowiki>ISBN 0-7139-9687-0</nowiki>.'''
# Jayarāśi, a 9th-century Indian philosopher associated with Cārvāka / Lokāyata school, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2011)
# Lokāyata/Cārvāka – Indian Materialism (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Sarama Pani Samvada (सरमापणिसंवादः)

2017-09-12T10:56:18Z

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Rig veda 10th mandala describes the legendary episode of Stealing of the divine Cows || गोग्रहणम् by the Panis who are a class of tradesmen with no regard for yagnas or vedic principles.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Sarama (Sanskrit :सरमा) Indra’s dog was ordered by Indra to locate the lost divine cows and with the help of Sarama and Angirasa rushi Indra releases them from captivity. In this context appears a beautiful description of the discussion between the Panis and Sarama in the 10th mandala of Rig Veda.

== Sarama and Panis Samvaad सरमापणिसम्वादः ==
RgVeda(10.108) describes the legendary theft of the divine cows, where Panis who were demons, steal and hide them in a cave. Indra sends his dog Sarama in search of the lost divine cows and Sarama comes across Panis, with whom She has an important discussion. This episode describes how Sarama requests Panis to return back the Cows and they in turn try to bribe or tempt her. Their conversation goes thus:

Rig (10.108.1 and 2) Panis said: “Oh Sarama, what do you want and why have you traveled such a long distance. This is a difficult path and there is the river rasa right in the middle of the road. How did you cross the river and why did you make the effort? Why have you come here?

Rig (10.108. 3 and 4) Saramareplies, Oh panis, I come as the messenger of Indra. The cow wealth are our treasure and I came here looking for them. The river gave way to us in fear as it knew that if it didnt we would take over it.

Rig (10.108.5 and 6)Thepanis spoke “Oh you are only a servant, yet you have such power? If you have so much power, imagine how much powerful your master Indra must be? We should befriend Sarama. Let Indra become the master of cows

Rig (10.108.7 and 8)Saramaspoke:“Oh panis! Indra can’t be destroyed. He can destroy all of you! The fact that I have come here shows Indra’s power. No river, however deep can keep Indra away!

As forth goes the Rg mantra The Panis spoke with great anger “Ye Sarama! We are not so foolish to give up the cows without a fight. We have got all kinds of sharp weapons.

Sarama spoke “this is not befitting for warriors. Your body is not meant for arrows as it is full of sin. As your path is not dharmic, even Brihaspathi will not spare you. The Panis retorted, “This is mountainous terrain and so for someone to come here is difficult and the cows are safely hidden. We have all kinds of security, horses and unlimited prosperity and our soldiers are alert. Therefore, your coming is useless.

Sarama replies, “the unwearied Angirasas and Navagvas who have drunk the powerful Soma rasa will come and they will distribute those cows within themselves then your words will be futile and useless.

The Panis then give up threatening Sarama and use samadanopaya to entice her to join them. “Ye Sarama, you would not have come if the devathas had not forced you to travel this far, you shall be our sister. Do not go back, stay here and we will give you the cows.

Sarama is not tempted, says, “I know not what you are saying, about making me your sister. I know who Indra and Angirasaare. They who are “gokaamaa or long for the cows when I departed and Brihaspathi, Soma, Angirasa have found them when hidden. (Rg Veda 10.108.22)

This sukta doesn’t continue further with the story, but in Saunaka’s “Brihaddevatha chapter 8 and from the other part of Vedas the legend is continued.

== Legend in Brihaddevatha ==
Sarama after saying that she does not have any relationship with Panis, says that she did not desire any prosperity or money but wanted a little milk from those divine cows that Panis had hid. sabradim naha iccamisasvathavam vadhananiva ide yamthu payastha samgavam yastha niguhathaha|| (8.30).

Saramaby her nature not being too strong (“svabhavasca laulyasca) was tempted by the offer of cow milk.Sarama was very appreciative of the milk and she crossed the Rasanadi and gave Indra a false report. Indrarealised that Sarama’s report was false and wondered at the reason for the change in the character of Sarama.
Saunaka explained that Sarama changed because of ‘prabhavathasurasthu“, that is even though the milk of cows was divine, but because of the Asuric influence, Sarama’s character had changed. Then Indra using his power kicked Sarama to get out the real truth and immediately Sarama vomited all the milk given by demons
||taamjaganpadankruddahaudgiranthu hi payasthatha ha||
Sarama became very fearful and in her fear she walked towards the place of Panis. Indra who had followed Sarama on his Ari vahana killed all the panis and brought back the cows.

Sarme after saying that he does not have any relationship with both of you, says that she or he did not desire any prosperity or money but wanted a little milk from those cows that Panis had hid.

||sabradim naha iccamisa svathavamva dhananiva ide yamthu payasthasam gavamyasthaniguhathaha|| (8.30). Tempted by the milk Sarme after drinking the water and her nature not being too strong (“svabhavasca laulyas ca) she was tempted by the milk. Sarme was very appreciative of the milk and she crossed the Rasanadi and gave Indra a false report. Indra realised that Sarme’s report was false and wondered at the reason for the change in the character of Sarme? Saunaka explained that Sarme changed because of ‘prabhavath asurasthu“, that is even though the milk of cows was divine, but because of the Asuric influence, Sarme’s character had changed. Then Indra using his power kicked Sarme to get out the real truth and immediately Sarme vomited all the milk given by demons ||taam jagan padankruddahaudgiranthu hi payasthatha ha|| Sarme became very fearful and in her fear she walked towards the place of Panis. Indra who had followed Sarme on his Ari vahana killed all the panis and brought back the cows.

== Legend in Sayanabhasya ==
In Sayana’s commentary, it is mentioned that Sarama’s episode with the Panis was communicated to Indra who kills them and brings back the cows.

Although slightly different versions of the legend is found in different places of the scriptures essentially the purport has not changed over different commentaries over ages. Sayanacharya's works have been the basis of many early Indologists views and interpretations of Bharatiya veda samskruti.

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==
This story of stealing the cows or Go grahana is interpreted by Indologists and their followers through the fake Aryan-Dravidian race theory. For them the Panis are the Mulnivasis, the original native people of india, and the Dravidians, were the “dasyus. The Aryans were the non-natives invaders who owned the cows. There was constant conflict between the Dravidians and the Aryans. The Dravidians would hide the cows of Aryans repeatedly and one of such episodes is described here according to the distorted Aryan Invasion theory.When self-styled western historians studied this story they interpreted the panis () as “Dasyus () or Dravidians, a term coined by Bishop Caldwell '''(REFERENCE)'''.

'''Questions'''
# If it was true, then what is the role of Sarama, Indra’s dog?
# Is Sarama a historical character? If so, was it true that dogs could speak in the Vedic period?
# What is the meaning of the discussion between Sarama and the Panis?
# What is the place beyond the Rasa River? Is it a physical place?
# If Indra had to release the cows, then is Indra a historical personality? If that is true, then is it Indra’s right to claim that Indra is Arya and he was victorious against the Panis? Or to consider that Panis are some kind of group of people.
# If Angirasa is brahmana, how come he had pet dogs, as a Brahmana why was he taking care of dogs? If he was not a brahamana then does he talk about the deeper definition of the cow? What is the meaning of Angirasa?
# Is it true that Aryans raised dogs, instead of cows and horses? Was that true that Dravidians did not have dogs with them?
# Why are there name related to dogs in Vedas: suna, saunaka, sunaka, sunasshepa, etc., Why would they have such names connected to dogs?

'''Explanation'''

Panis are basically the enemies of Indra, Soma, Agni, Brihaspathi and Angiras. Here “Pani word can be used as a miserly, tight-fisted person. They are called “Indra Sathru enemies of Indra: vala, bala. If we accept cows as defined in the previous chapter, then it could be said that Panis are the powers that can stop the progress of knowledge.

The suktas we can understand that the Panis are the “jnana apaharaka Shakti (the robbers of knowledge). This indicates the struggle to acquire the knowledge. The dog that comes here is nothing but devaduthi (agent of the devatas) or the chitta (consciousness) which is always conscious in every living entity.

The dog of the devathas is always alert and awake and has the power to know everything. She symbolically represents finding out the inner difficulties of living entities.

The esoteric meaning in Sarama's conversation depicts the brahma jnanis and describes the nature of life, talks about the destination of iha and para () and the importance of brahma jnani achieving the knowledge.

== References ==
K. L. Narayanacharya, Veda Samskrita Parichaya

SaramA and the PaNis: A Mythological Theme in the Rigveda from the site http://voiceofdharma.org/books/rig/ch10.htm

Panis (पणिकाः)

2017-09-12T10:47:47Z

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Pani (Sankrit : पणिकः) basically belongs to a community of tradesmen referred to vedic literature. They have enmity with Indra, Soma, Agni, Brihaspathi and Angiras. They are called इन्द्रशत्रृ || Indra Sathru or enemies of Indra headed by Panis named Vala and Bala.

== परिचय || Introduction ==

Ample references in the vedic literature are available about trade for profit in distant lands by travelling over the seas (Rig Ved 1.562). Merchants in the vedic period prayed and offered oblations to seek divine grace for success in trade (RV 3.183). These commercial people believed in a materialistic philosophy of life. Mostly these traders and merchants were the Asuras or Dasyus and for trade moved in all directions including foreign countries. The international trade was confined to a certain section of Dasyu society called the Panis.

Pani ||पणिकः is referred to as a tradesman of extremely miserly nature. They are deplored in many mantras of the Rig veda (RV 6.53.02 to 07). They are the rich and enterprising merchant class solely devoted to the cause of gain either through trade or usury. They have been designated as Bekanatas or usurers. These panis can be classified as the ancestors of Vanika of later times who formed the Vaisya caste in Aryan conception.

== व्युत्पत्ति || Etymology ==
Here the term Pani || पणिकः refers to a miserly, tight-fisted person.

*Maharshi Yaska describes that panis are वर्तकः|| varthaka (business people) who sell things for profits.
<blockquote>"
‘पणिर्वणिग्भवति panihi vanika bhavathi''' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
panihi pananatha vanika panyam nenakthi’ (Nirukti 2.17) "</blockquote>Sayanaacharya explains in his commentary for the (Rk Veda 1.12.4 – 10) as follows <blockquote>"
kincha panayaha vyaya ahisnavaha vanijaha panihi vanika bhvathi thi yaskaha panayaha iti lubdakaha abhi yuddavanaha yugadinam akurvanaha adanashilaha asmat shatravaha”. '''''"</blockquote>Panis were wealthy people who hoarded money with a very miserly business attitude, lacking in intellectual stability and had very little regard for any Vedic ritual.
*Maharshi Yaska also refers to '''Panis''' as business minded people or tradesmen”.
<blockquote>"
panimsca vanijaha”(Niruktha 6.26)
"</blockquote>
<blockquote>"
The Vedas also talk of बेकनाटा || bekanatas who are known to be shrewd money lenders who impose heavy interest for their profits. These ‘bekanatas’ supposedly can see only during the day and when night befalls they argue that those visible things do not exist. Therefore they are considered to be नास्तिक || nasthika or atheists like the Charvaka philosophers. To reaffirm this, Yaska maharshi quotes the following Rg mantra
"</blockquote>
<blockquote>"
कदू महीरध्र्ष्टा अस्य तविषीः कदु वर्त्रघ्नो अस्त्र्तम | 
इन्द्रो विश्वान बेकनाटानहर्द्र्श उत करत्वा पणीन्रभि || ''Rk Veda (8.66.10)''"</blockquote>Here the word अहर्द्र्श || ahardrisha has been explained in detail by Sayanaacharya as follows by Dr. K. L. Narayanacharya<blockquote>"
''nanu sarve suryam pasyanthi ko atra tishaya iti ucyathe ihaiva janmani suryam pasyanthina janmanthare lubdaka ayushtarondhe tamasimajansthi athva laukika neva ahani pasyanthi na para laukikanthyath drishtani dishta pradanahini nastikaha"''"</blockquote>Meaning : A question arises that if everyone can see the Sun why panis are called ahardrihaha”. It is said that panis see the Sun only in this lifetime and because of their miserliness and disengagement in Yajna, they attain the land of ‘andha tamasa’ or complete darkness in their future births. Panis view the world with a materialistic or physical light” and do not experience the light of spirituality or the higher realms”. Thus they remain in the land of ‘andha tamasa’ or in complete darkness for their understanding is that of the atheists who only believe in what they see with their eyes.
*In Rig Veda the word pani” has been mentioned in the prayers offered to Usha Devi.

Meaning : Hey Devi, you are magnanimous, one who gives whatever we ask, and what do we ask? We only ask you for the ingredients to perform the Yajna. We appeal to make the performers of yajnas, especially, those who are generous greater in their intelligence. Similarly the Panis who are our enemies, cheaters, greedy, and bereft of intelligence, please make them go to sleep. Hey Devi, to those who are charitable, the initiators of yajnas, please give them all the benefits. Ye Devi, with compassionate eyes, offer those who perform yajnas with all the stotras, unlimited happiness and prosperity”.

== Conflict between Indra and Panis ==

In Vedic economy, commercial production was in the hands of rest of the society and exchange was controlled by Panis, Dasyus, and Asuras who traded them. Material dissatisfaction brought about conflict between these two sections of the society or Gana. Materially Indra believes in social control over the production and promoted distribution of wealth back to the community. Society or the Gana participated in Yagna, and offers and oblations were made by the individuals in the name of their respective leaders so that the vigour and strength of the Gana may be well maintained. Wealth thus during the Vedic times was a social asset rather than personal possession. Yagna and material prosperity go together.

On the other hand, Panis, Asuras, Dasyus believed in completely different principles of economics. They were individualistic in their economic approach. They were on the higher strata of the society, and did everything in their own interest, never offerring any part of their income to the community. They never believed in Yagna and were famous for their greed. They never united with the society in any matters. As a result these two factions of the society had different economic policies, leading to enmity. The refusal of Panis to contribute Dana and Dakshina for Yagna brought about enmity between them. Wealth in those days was mainly the strength of cattle and property. All sections of the Gana united against Panis, while they took away the cattle wealth of the Angirasas. Indra as their leader defeated the Panis and brought back the wealth. (page no 22 of Ref 2).

Indra’s army is indicated as very powerful, always alert and unconquerable as he who defeated Vrithra can face any enemy. Therefore, Indra with his invincible army destroyed the panis or the bekanatas.

== Panis and Gograhana ==

Panis are demonic and used here in plural as 'panis' indicating not just one person but many such who existed during the vedic period. From the Gograhana story if we accept cows as Vedas or knowledge, then it could be said that Panis are the powers that hinder the progress of knowledge. Thus from the Rg suktas we can understand that the panis are the jnana apaharaka shakti” (the thieves of knowledge).

They are people who create obstacles wherever there are positive activities which are meant for enhancing dharma or favouring the devathas that revere the go samuha” or herd of the cows. They steal cows and create obstacles in the progress of the devathas and society, which neither benefits them nor the society. Consumed with only materialistic aspirations they lack the spiritual interest. They steal the knowledge or imprison the Brahma Nishtas to ensure that the knowledge is not spread. Angirasa who was knowledgeable about the characteristics of cows rescues them from the caves where they were hidden by the Panis.

In Srimad Bhagavatham, the ministers of Kamsa are shown to have the same mentality of the Panis as they want to control the devatas and the Lord. From Srimad Bhagavatham (10.4.39-42)''<blockquote>"
'' mūlaṁ hi viṣṇur devānāṁ yatra dharmaḥ sanātanaḥ tasya ca''
''brahma-go-viprās tapo yajñāḥ sa-dakṣiṇāḥ "</blockquote><blockquote>"
tasmāt sarvātmanā rājan brāhmaṇān brahma-vādinaḥ
''tapasvino yajña-śīlān gāś ca hanmo havir-dughāḥ "</blockquote><blockquote>"
viprā gāvaś ca vedāś ca tapaḥ satyaṁ damaḥśamaḥ
''śraddhā dayā titikṣā ca kratavaś ca hares tanūḥ "</blockquote><blockquote>"
sa hi sarva-suradhyakso hy asura-dvid guha-sayah tan-mula devatah sarvah ''sesvarah''
"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''sa-catur-mukhah ayam vai tad-vadhopayo yad rsinam vihimsanam || Srimad Bhagavatham (10.4.39-42)''
"</blockquote><nowiki> </nowiki>Meaning :The Devatas and Bhagavan Viṣhṇu, reside wherever there are dharmic principles, culture, the Vedas, cows, brāhmaṇas, austerities and sacrifices with proper donations. O King, we, who are your adherents in all respects, shall therefore kill the Vedic brahmanas, the persons engaged in offering sacrifices and austerities, and the cows that supply milk, from which clarified butter is obtained for the ingredients of sacrifice (to cause harm to Vishnu)

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==

The panis are materialistic people and enemies of wisdom who envy the jnanis. Aspiring only the materialistic world, trying to exploit the society for personal gains, going in the name of socialism -- these are asuric and destructive energies. Many mantras of the Rg veda prove that Panis were the original residents of Bharatavarsha, though [[Max Mueller]] & [[Bishop Caldwell]]'s Aryan-Dravidian Hoax claims that the Panis were chased away by the Aryas.

The society or the world is generally filled with materialistic ideologies — those who are like Panis or Dasyus. '''Dasyus are traders like Pani, comes from the root word: Dus” those who have business as their goal. The alternative word given by Yaska in Nirukti is: dasaha dassyathe upadasayathi’. Not so sure about this ??'''

The point is that business and farming or transactions is required for the society and not to be viewed in negative sense. But the purely materialistic attitude with business only for personal profits, without connection to the jnana of the other world:para” is not a Vedic practice. Therefore Panis who hinder the advancement of Consciousness in Spiritual realm, are viewed with contempt as seen in Rig Veda mantras. Thus, vedas rather than speaking only from a historical perspective establish an eternal truth. And this indicates that since times immemorial jnana shakti is constantly in war with ajananis (unintelligent people). Panis could be from any kula or race or any civilization, but that is a secondary consideration for Vedas.

Sadly, Panis exist in the present society also. Panis do not indicate just the community, but are the miserly intentions of people or their actions and behaviour. When our spiritual knowledge is kept in darkness it gives rise to wrongful transactions and ||nasthik (atheism).

== References ==
#K. L. Narayanacharya, Veda Sanskrita Parichaya
#Prakash Charan Prasad, Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India

Chandogya Upanishad (छान्दोग्योपनिषतद्)

2017-09-12T10:36:13Z

P16232: /* सम्वाद || Discussion */

The '''Chaandogya Upanishad''' (Sanskrit: छान्दोग्योपनिषद्, IAST: ''Chāndogyopaniṣad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda. It is one of the oldest Upanishads.

The Chandogya Upanishad is notable for its lilting metric structure,
its mention of ancient cultural elements such as musical instruments,
and embedded philosophical premises that later served as foundation for Vedanta school of Hinduism. It is one of the most cited texts in later ''Bhasyas'' (reviews and commentaries) by scholars from the diverse schools of Hinduism. It has gained importance as one Upanishad for which Adi Shankara has cited Chandogya Upanishad 810 times in his ''Vedanta Sutra Bhasya'', more than any other ancient text.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The Chandogya Upanishad is slightly smaller in extent than the Brhadaaranyaka Upanishad. Its importance is due to the fact that it directly deals with the true nature of Brahman, the Supreme Self, or Advaita without a second, and its identity with the Individual Self. This Upanishad though mainly deals with the Science of Non-Duality, yet in it are described the forms of Upasana (meditation and worship) as the means of the attainment of good results; for, these bring about results which are as good as Liberation itself. There is also a similarity between the Upasana and the knowledge of Non-Duality in that both are esoteric in their character and both fall within the purview of the functions of the Mind. These forms of Upasana purify the inner-sense-organs and thereby become illuminative of the true nature of the reality, and so they are helpful in bringing about the Cognition of the Absolute (अद्वैतज्ञान); and as they (Upasanas) have got some definite substratum as their object (आलम्बनविषय), it is also easier to achieve success in it.

== Structure of the Upanishad ==
This Upanishad is one of the largest compilations comprising of the last 8 chapters of the Chāndogya Brāhmaṇa; thus it contains eight ''Prapathakas'' (literally lectures, chapters). Each Prapathaka is divided into sections and each section contains a number of verses. So, a verse is identified by Prapathaka or Chapter, section and verse number respectively like 6.2.1. In size this Upanishad comes next to Bṛhadāraṇyaka. The volumes are a motley collection of stories and themes. As part of
the poetic and chants-focussed Samaveda, the broad unifying theme of the
Upanishad is the importance of speech, language, song and chants to
man's quest for knowledge and salvation, to metaphysical premises and
questions, as well as to rituals.

Sage Uddālaka Āruṇi whom we have seen in Bṛhadāraṇyaka asking questions on the principle that holds together and rules from within all beings, is the leading figure in this Upanishad. Here we see him teaching his son Śvetaketu about the ultimate or true nature of Brahman. His teaching is the most important part of this Upanishad and it forms the contents of chapter 6. The famous declaration of ‘Tattvamasi’ is also found in this chapter, as uttered by Uddālaka Āruṇi.

== Prapathaka 1 ==
Sankaracharya’s bhashya of Chandogya Upanishad emphasises the fact that for the realisation of Brahman, the Savikalpaka form of Meditation is more useful. It is therefore, that the Upanishad sets forth in the very beginning various forms of Upasana of Brahman.

After this the Upanishad proceeds to deal with the syllable 'Om', and the Udgitha. The first chapter-beginning with the words-' One should meditate upon the syllable ‘Om ', has been devoted to the treatment of the manner of Meditation of the constituent factors of the Sama which leads to various results.

This chapter contains 13 sections, of which the first opens with a call to meditate upon the syllable ‘Om’. The syllable ‘Om’ represents the Ultimate Principle of Ātmā which is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA in essence. Ātmā is free from all dualities such as pleasure-pain, affection-aversion, heat-cold, ups-downs that define the diversity of physical manifestation. It is these dualities that cause the miseries in the worldly life. Since Ātmā is free from all dualities, it is advisable to stay close to it as far as possible for this purpose. That is why one meditates upon ‘Om’ which is verily the symbol of the principle of Ātmā. Verse 1.1.10 declares that only those actions that are performed with knowledge, faith and meditation is more efficacious (1.1.10).

Section 2 speaks of rivalry between Devas and Asuras, which we may understand as the unending conflict between two opposite forces in every being.

The third chapter proceeds with the Upasana of the Sun, who is identified with and Brahman who is the summation of the results of all sacrifices. By the way, the Upanishad tells us of the excellent results which the Brahmavidya brings about.

== Prapathaka 2 ==
In the second chapter the Upasana of the entire Sama has been given.

In this chapter Verse 2.23.1 sets out the collection of laws (धर्मस्कन्ध) one should abide by, for leading a virtuous life; they are (i) Sacrifice, Study and Charity (yajña, adhyayana, dāna – यज्ञ, अध्ययन, दान); (ii) Austerity (tapas); and (iii) Chastity and Living in preceptor’s house (brahmacarya and ācāryakulavāsī – ब्रह्मचर्य, अचार्यकुलवासी). All these lead to the world of the virtuous; but, only one who is firm in Brahma attains immortality.

In verses 2.23.2 and 2.23.3 we see a description of how the syllable ‘Om’ evolved from intense meditation by Prajāpati. The worlds on intense meditation gave forth the Vedas (प्रजापतिर्लोकान् अभ्यतपत् तेभ्योഽभितप्तेभ्यः त्रयी विद्या संप्रास्रवत् – prajāpatirlokān abhyatapat tebhyoഽbhitaptebhyaḥ trayī vidyā saṃprāsravat -2.23.2), which in turn gave forth the ‘bhur-bhuva-svaḥ’ in the same manner. It is these three sounds that finally gave forth the syllable ‘Om’ through the same process. Thus ‘Om’ is the abstraction of all the Vedas and all the worlds; ‘Om’ is all this (ओंकार एवेदं सर्वम् – oṃkāra evedaṃ sarvam – 2.23.3).

== Prapathaka 3 ==
This chapter starts with an enquiry into the essence of various objects in this phenomenal world and finally comes to the conclusion that all this is Brahma only (सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म – sarvaṃ khalvidaṃ brahma – 3.14.1); everything originates from it, exists in it and finally merges into it.

In the following three verses, viz. 3.14.2, 3.14.3 & 3.14.4 we see what Brahma is. It is Ātmā who is absolute cognizance, having vital air (प्राण – prāṇa) as body, brilliance as appearance and ether (आकाश- ākāśa) as form; within him are all deeds, all desires, all smells, all tastes and he pervades everything here; he is calm and also unattached (3.14.2). This is the very same Ātmā that is in our inner heart of consciousness; smaller than a corn, barley, or the kernel of mustard seed and at the same time greater than the earth, the sky and all these worlds (3.14.3). One attains to Ātmā, on leaving this phenomenal existence (3.14.4).

The implication is that Ātmā is the subtlest of the subtle and grossest of the gross; it pervades all beings and things. Ātmā is one without a second; it is an incessant continuity, without any break, pervading the entire universe. The description about body, appearance, etc. is an indication that it is not graspable by sense organs.

== Prapathaka 4 ==
In this chapter we see some stories about how certain people sought to know the Brahman. The most interesting of these is that of Satyakāma Jābāla (4.4.1 to 4.9.3). The boy Satyakāma wanted to be initiated into religious studies; in order to approach a teacher for the purpose, he needs to know the name of his clan (family). He asked his mother; her reply was very strange. She said, I do not know, my child, of what family you are. In my youth I used to move about much, as a servant and then I conceived you. So, I do not know of what family you are. But I am Jabālā and you are Satyakāma; so mention yourself as Satyakāma Jābāla”. He went to the teacher by name Gautama, son of Haridrumata and requested to be instructed. About his clan, he revealed what his mother said. Gautama was impressed by his honesty and took him as a student. Then Gautama chose four hundred lean and weak cows and asked Satyakāma to go with them. While going with the cows, Satyakāma vowed that he would return only when the number of cows rises to thousand. When the cows were thousand in number, the Bull in the herd asked Satyakāma to take them to teacher’s house. The Bull also instructed him on one quarter of Brahman, ‘Brahma is Radiant’ (prakāśavān – प्रकाशवान्). The radiant Brahman consists in the four directions. Satyakāma learned about the other three quarters of Brahman from Fire, Haṃsa (flamingo) and Madgu (water-bird). They respectively taught him about Brahman as Endless (anantavān – अनन्तवान्), Effulgent (jyotiṣmān – ज्योतिष्मान्) and as the Abode (āyatanavān – आयतनवान्) respectively.

Having thus learned about Brahman, Satyakāma returned to his teacher, who found him to be shining endowed with the knowledge of Brahman. Satyakāma told him that he was taught about Brahman by those other than humans; but he still wanted to be taught by the teacher as he had heard that knowledge learnt from the teacher is the best. The teacher indeed taught him, but it was same as what he had already learned.

== Prapathaka 5 ==
The first section of this chapter says about a dispute between the organs of speech, eyes, ears, mind and breath, on who among them is the best. They approached their father Prajāpati to resolve the dispute. He told them, He is the best on whose leaving, the body becomes the worst”. Then, each of them in turn left the body and stayed away for a year; when finally, the breath was about to depart, the other organs began to be detached from their respective places. Thus, it was established that breath (prāna) is the best among them (5.1.1 to 5.1.15).

== Prapathaka 6 ==
This is the most important chapter of the Chāndogya Upanishad; for, it takes us to the most expressive declarations of Ātmā and Brahman. These are revealed in a conversation between Śvetaketu and his father Uddālaka Āruṇi.

== Prapathaka 7 ==
This chapter is about Sanatkumāra teaching Nārada on the enquiry into the ultimate principle of Ātmā. Nārada approaches Sanatkumāra saying that he knows all the Vedas and ancillary literature, but still has not overcome sorrow as he does not know the Ātmā. This may remind us about the context and relevance of the question Uddālaka Āruṇi was asking his son Śvetaketu in 6.1.2 above. Now, Nārada similarly asks for that instruction which would carry him beyond sorrow. Accordingly, Sanatkumāra teaches Nārada starting with the possibilities and limitations of meditating upon various objects. This episode of Nārada justifies Uddālaka’s criticism of Śvetaketu’s presumed conceit.

== Prapathaka 8 ==
The last chapter contains a very detailed discussion on Ātmā and Brahman. The chapter opens with a direction about what should be sought for and known; it is that which is there in the space inside the lotus-abode within our Heart (8.1.1).<blockquote>"
''.. यत् इदं अस्मिन् ब्रह्मपुरे दहरं पुण्डरीकं वेश्म दहरोഽस्मिन् अन्तराकाशः तस्मिन् यदन्तः तदन्वेष्टव्यं तद् वाव विजिज्ञासितव्य्म् … || 8.1.1 ||''</blockquote><blockquote>"
''… yat idaṃ asmin brahmapure daharaṃ puṇḍarīkaṃ veśma daharoഽsmin antarākāśaḥ tasmin yadantaḥ tadanveṣṭavyaṃ tad vāva vijijñāsitavym … (8.1.1)''</blockquote>ब्रह्मपुर (brahmapura) means Heart; but it is not the heart of blood circulation. It is the centre of consciousness, which in modern scientific parlance is Thalamus. What is the authority for this claim? Verse 3.6 of Praśna (प्रश्न) Upanishad says that the Heart, which is supposed to be the seat of Ātmā, is where the nerves are connected. Ātmā, we know, is pure consciousness in essence (in addition to existence and bliss) and therefore, its seat is the centre of consciousness. This is Thalamus, because, it is the nerve centre and is considered to be the switch board of information. All signals come to it and then transmitted to the concerned organs. Through the nerves emanating from the Thalamus, consciousness pervades throughout the body. Thus, Ātmā is in the Heart and the verse says that it is that (Ātmā) which should be sought for and known. Most interpreters take the word ‘Heart’ to mean the heart of blood circulation and consequently misinterpret nāḍi (नाडि) in the scriptures as artery instead of the true meaning of ‘nerve’; this mistake results in misleading the understanding and conveying the true message of the Upanishads.

In 8.1.5, it is declared that Ātmā is not deteriorated by old age when the body gets old and does not become dead when the body is dead; the Heart is Satyam and therein are established all the wishes; but Ātmā is free from evils, old age, death, sorrows, hunger and thirst; whatever he wills and resolves, they all come true. The expression, ‘Ātmā is free from evils, etc.’ means that Ātmā is devoid of all dualities of evil-virtue, pleasure-pain, etc; it is pure (serene) SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA which transcends all the dualities.

In continuation of what is said in 8.1.1, it is stated in 8.3.3 that this Ātmā is in the Heart. The etymology of the word ‘Heart’ is given here as: हृदि + अयम् = हृदयम् (hṛdi + ayam = hṛdayam). ‘hṛdi’ means in the inner chest; ayam indicates Ātmā. Therefore, Heart or hṛdayam means the inner chest where Ātmā is seated.

Verse 8.6.3 says that when a person is fast asleep, in perfect rest, his consciousness withdraws from the sense organs and remains within the nerves; he is then possessed solely by the brilliance of Ātmā; then he knows not sorrows.

Verse 8.6.6 tells us about the number of nerves. The verse is,<blockquote>"
''शतं चैका हृदस्य नाड्यः तासां मूर्धानमभिनिःसृतैका
तयोर्ध्वमायन्नमृतत्वमेति विष्वङ्ङन्या उत्क्रमणे भवन्ति || 8.6.6 ||''</blockquote><blockquote>"
''śataṃ caikā hṛdasya nāḍyaḥ tāsāṃ mūrdhānamabhiniḥsṛtaikā tayordhvamāyannamṛtatvameti viṣvaṅṅanyā utkramaṇe bhavanti (8.6.6)''</blockquote>Meaning: ‘There are 101 nerves attached to the Heart, of which one goes up; moving by that nerve, one attains immortality. All other nerves lead to different directions’.

The same verse is seen repeated in Kaṭha (कठ) Upanishad at 6.16 and the same topic is dealt with in detail in 3.6 and 3.7 of Praśna (प्रश्न) Upanishad. The Praśna says that the number of main nerves is 101 which branch into secondary and tertiary nerves, the entire total being 72 crores and 72 lakhs. The one that refers to in the above verse is obviously a main nerve. Since its direction is upwards, it must be inferred to be the communication highway of the brain. The upward movement through the nerve, mentioned in the verse, must be directed to the brain which actually is the centre of knowledge. ‘Going upward’, therefore, means ‘going to the brain’ which, in turn, implies pursuing knowledge. Cumulatively, the declaration in the verse would mean that by acquiring knowledge one would be able to attain immortality. The remaining nerves, on the other hand, are entrusted with bodily functions; therefore ‘following them’ means indulgence in worldly pleasures, which would lead us astray.

== References ==
# Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya, by Ganganath Jha
#The Science of Chandogya Upanishad Posted by Karthikeyan Sreedharan | Mar 27, 2017 | Articles on Hinduism in Indiadivine.org

Angirasa (अङ्गिरसः)

2017-09-12T10:34:15Z

P16232: /* Explanation */

Angirasa (Sanskrit : अङ्गिरसः) or Angira (Sanskrit : अङ्गिरः) is associated with several vedic and puranic individuals. Descendants of Angirasa are called Aangirasa (आङ्गिरसः), who are credited with the darshana of many Rig vedic mantras.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The different references to Angirasa are presented in different texts as follows
* Angirasa is a rishi (or sage) who, along with Sage Atharvana, is credited to have formulated most of the fourth Veda called Atharva Veda. Alongside, the episodes of Angirasa have also been mentioned in the Rig, Sama, and Yajur Vedas.
* Angirasa, a rishi who undertook the upasana of important pranas of the body. Hence the main prana is thought of as Angirasa by rishis. (chandogya upanishad).
* Angirasa has also been referred to as one of the seven sages or Saptarshis of the first Manvantara with others. His wife’s name was Surupa. He had three sons namely Samvartana, Utatya, and Brihaspati (Aangirasa) who, along with Sage Atharvana, is credited to have formulated most of the fourth Veda called Atharva Veda.
* Angirasa is one amongst the ten Brahma Manasaputras, i.e. sons born by mere thought or manas, of Lord Brahma. Upon Brahma’s desire, through his wife Shraddha, Angirasa begot seven sons: Brihat Keerti, Brihat Jyoti, Brihat Brahma, Brihan Manas, Brihan Mantra, Brihat Bhanu, Brihaspati. He also had daughters namely Bhanumati, Raka, CineeVali, Mahishmati, Guhu, Mahamati , Archishamati and Yogasiddhi. ( Mahabharata)
* Angirasa the son of Ulmuka and younger brother of Anga who is a King. It is said that Anga married Suneedha while Angirasa got married to Smriti, the daughter of Daksha prajapati.
* Angirasa is closely associated with agni, being born from sacrificial fire of Varuna: "Varunasya Rutoujatahpawakadity nah shrutam" (Mahabharata 1.5.8).
* Angirasa is identified with Agni:
<blockquote>"
''यदंग दाषुशे त्वं, अग्ने भद्रं करिष्यसि ।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''तदैतद् सत्यमङ्गिरः॥ (Rig-Veda 1.1.6)''"</blockquote>
* References to [[Kutsa Angirasa (कुत्स अङ्गिरसः)|Kutsa Angirasa]], [[Sapta Angirasa (सप्त अङ्गिरसः)|Sapta Angirasa]], Uru Angirasa and Prabhavasu Angirasas are seen in different mantras of Rig veda.
* As mentioned in the Rig-Veda (10.108), Angirasa is the one to whom Indra presents all the cows after freeing them from the captivation of Asura named Vala and several other asuras called the Panis.

== Textual References ==
* '''Rk Samhita''' : [[Sayanacharya (सायनाचार्यः)|Sri Sayanacharya's]] explanation refers to Angirasa as one who traverses with great speed.
<blockquote>"
''“unganthi gachanthi ittangiraso ganthara'' ''(Rk Samhita, 1.100.4)'' "</blockquote>
* '''Nirukta''' : Yaskacharya's explanation is connected to the appearance of Angirasa.
<blockquote>"
''“angaresu angiraha angaraha ankanaha anchanaha'' ''(Nirukta 3.17)''"</blockquote>He was born from the “retas or the semen of Brahma and it was blazing like cinder and then first Aditya appeared and then Angirasa. Even for agni there is a word called "Angaraha" meaning one which creates an impression “anka or sign. Similarly Angirasa also means: one who creates a lasting impression in others.
* '''Brahmana''' : Taitriya Brahmana explains Angirasa as those who are like the cinder or angi.
<blockquote>"
''“ye angara asanthe angiraso abhavan (Taitriya Brahmana 3.34)''"</blockquote>
* '''Upanishad''' : Chandogya Upanishad explains that because all the limbs of the body are controlled by “prana that “mukya prana itself has become anga rasa or angirasa.
<blockquote>"
''“tadaham angiraha udgitaha upasam cakre ethave eva etharssam angiraha anthe anganagam hi esha rasaha (Chan Upan 1.2.10)'' "</blockquote>
* In the Upanayanam kriya (thread ceremony) the Initiator, prays "let my medha shakti, the wisdom power, increase like Angirasa.
<blockquote>"
''“medham mayyam angiraso medhagam sapta rushayo daduhu medham mayyam prajapathihi medhaamagnir dadathu me“ ('''Mampra 2.4.6''')''"</blockquote>Plentiful are such references in the vedangas. The mention of Angirasa in various scriptures and the significance of Angirasa's knowledge of the characteristics of cows is also noteworthy as evident from the Rg Veda 10th mandala mantras.

== Angirasa and Gograhana ==
In the '''Rg Veda (10.108)''', there is a story of Angirasa in connection with the cows. This particular legend of stealing of Cows or गोग्रहणम्॥ Gograhanam has been described vividly in Rig Veda 3.31, and 10.108, including a reference in 8.14. Again, a description on the family of Angirasa is given in the Mandala 6 of the Rig-Veda.

The legend goes that Panis were the demons who stole the cows
and hid them in a cave. Indra asks his dog Sarama to find the cows. Sarama was able to find the cows' whereabouts in the first instance'''.''' During
that search, an important discussion between the Panis and Sarama occurs. Angirasa rushi then helped Indra to locate the Panis who stole the cows.

The '''Rg Mantra 97.36''' explains how Angirasa assisted Indra. <blockquote>"
''“yena naha purve pitaraha padjna svarvido abhigha adrimushnan'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
''"In our family and ancestors, the pitris, there is Angirasa who, a sarvajna, knowledgeable about the para loka, brought back the stolen cows which were identified by their foot marks (characteristics) from mountains".''"</blockquote>This reference is also found in the '''Jaimineeya Brahmana, II.440-442.''' Here, the cows are clearly referred to as the cows of the Gods stolen by the Panis. This time, the Gods first send SuparNa, the eagle or the Sun-bird. However, the PaNis bribe him into silence, and he accepts their gifts and returns without any information. The enraged Gods strangle him, and he vomits out the curds, etc. received from the PaNis. Then the Gods send SaramA. She crosses the river RasA and approaches the PaNis. She is also offered bribes, but (as in the Rigveda) she refuses their blandishments and returns to Indra with the information that the cows are hidden inside the RasA. She and her descendants are then blessed by a grateful Indra.

In the '''Brhaddevata, viii 24-36''' the same sequence of events takes place, but this time SaramA accepts the bribe of the PaNis, and apparently transfers her loyalties to them. When she returns to Indra and refuses to disclose the hideout of the cows, Indra kicks her in a rage. She vomits out the milk received as a bribe, and then goes back to trace the PaNis.

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==
As seen in the story of Angirasa protecting the cows, there is a historical and legendary perspective to it. If historically Panis are considered Dravidians and Angirasa a brahamana,some questions arise,
# ''Is it a conflict between Dravidian sudras and brahmanas?''
# ''If panis were business minded people and doing agriculture work, did they not have cows?''
# ''What does that mean by stealing cows?''
So this esoteric knowledge has been deliberately misused by the Indologists to create a wrong notion of shastras and create oppositional categories to suit their colonial agenda.

====== Explanation ======
Here “go means the “'''adhyatma vidya (spiritual knowledge)''' that is endorsed in Vedas and the foot marks of cows (characteristics) means actually explaining the meaning of the Vedic words which are esoteric which are to be deciphered properly. And those who understand this knowledge are called '''padajna''' (having the knowledge of the Veda). The 4 legs of this Kamadhenu the Vedas are dharma, artha, kama, moksha – which are the purusharthas.

Therefore which mantras provide for which purushartha was known very well to Angirasa rushi. As he was knowledgeable in mantras which leads one to the “parama pada or the highest abode he was the '''sarvavidaha or sarvajna''' as explained in Rk Samhita 1.164.45 :<blockquote>"
''चत्वारिवाक परिमितापदानितानि विदुर्ब्राह्मणाये मनीषिणः|'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
''गुहा तरीणि निहिता नेङगयन्ति तुरीयं वाचो मनुष्या वदन्ति || (The Rig Veda 1.164.45)''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''catvarivak parimitapadanitani vidurbrahmana ye minishinah |''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''guha tarini nihita neengayanti turiyam vaco manushyavadanti ||''"</blockquote>These “'''paraha''' (), “'''pasyanthi''' (), “'''madhyama''' () and “'''vaikhari''' () are the 4 ways of speech . Those who understand the meaning of these words or “padas are called '''padajna''' (knower of those speech) or “svarvida (these four paadas(legs) or padas (the sentences). The '''purusharthas''' which are called “chatvari-sringa, are known as the 4 horns of the “agni purusha or fire personified and the relationship they have with each other can only be understood by the process of yoga (upasana).

====== Esoteric Understanding of Angirasa bringing the cows ======
The esoteric meaning of bringing down the cows (synonymous to the Vedas) from the mountain top is very significant. The panis have common knowledge, who cannot assimilate the high standard of Vedic knowledge. Their carrying away the cows symbolises that even if they take it away they do not get any benefit or they will not understand the esoteric meaning. And the “go (cows) or the Vedic words were not damaged. The knowledgeable who had faith in these cows, were inconvenienced. Those who do not understand the meaning of Vedas, such people may be in disguise and steal the words of Vedas, but they won’t get the benefit of the Vedas.

Vedas are meaningless, insignificant and contain useless subject matter for them and like Western self-styled Indologists, they may distort the Vedas to compile their philosophies based on their erroneous understanding, but such people will not get any benefit. Those who are faithful to the Vedas and who lived life by following the Vedas, such people they may be inconvenienced by the Panis. However, great rushis like Angirasa who understand the meaning of Vedas and those who have the knowledge of the '''sampradaya, the “veda prajnas''' they bring down the cows from mountains despite the great difficulties and provide deeper meaning of Vedas to the qualified people and in this way become the support to the governance of this world, which is managed by Indra. If we see from such perspective, since the time of Rishis, the number of panis have increased.

In the name of the Vedas those who study vedas and then criticize the Vedic concept, the researchers and in the name of research, the Christian missionaries, those who follow their path—our own people, the leftists, and those people those who have given up the Sanatana values and spreading destructive life systems and those who are practicing atheistic concepts, the modern lokayuthas and those who have accepted the transformation of the Vedas in wrong way, these are all Panis. Therefore to protect DHarma from these disturbing elements and thought processes, people like Angirasa were committed to fight them and thus their work is significant.

== References ==
# SaramA and the PaNis: A Mythological Theme in the Rigveda from the site http://voiceofdharma.org/books/rig/ch10.htm
# '''Rig veda'''
# '''Brhaddevata,'''
# Mahabharata

Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)

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Samkhya sashtra or Sankhya (Sanskrit: साङ्ख्य शास्त्रम्) is one of the Shad Darshanas or the Veda Upangas. It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, and it was influential on other schools of Indian philosophy.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya philosophy is based on systematic enumeration and rational examination. It's philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of Hindu ethics. Samkhya || साङ्ख्य is, thus, depending on the context, means "to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to number, rational".
* Samkhya is strongly dualist accepting the roles of प्रकृति || Prakriti and पुरुष || Purusha in the Creation of this Universe.
* Samkhya siddhanta accepts that enumeration of truth can be done by using three of six accepted प्रमाणाः || pramanas (proofs).
* The Trigunas exist in all life forms in different proportions.
* It 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the purusha or soul. The evolutionary process involves Pradhana (Prakruti), Purusha, Mahat (Buddhi), Ahankaraara, Pancha Jnanendriyas, Pancha Karmendriyas, Panchatanmatras, Panchabhutas and Manas
* Sankhya denies that reaching God is the goal of life.
* While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, a key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god".
* The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered very relevant by the Samkhya philosophers.
* Samkhya school considers मोक्ष || moksha as a natural quest of every soul.

== Founder - Kapila Maharshi ==
Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school.

Kapila appears in ऋग्वेद || Rigveda, but context suggests that the word means "reddish brown color". Both Kapila as a "seer" and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5.2 in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (~300 BCE), suggesting Kapila's and Samkhya philosophy's origins may predate it.

Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila,
* Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila, called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.
* A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently state Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching, and a much later scholar named Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas. Isvarakrsna is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified Samkhya theories of Pancasikha, many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in the 6th century CE.
* Bhagavadgeeta discusses the Samkhya yoga.

== Origin of Samkhya ==
Some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins and that the Sankhya philosophy is, in its essence, not only atheistic but also inimical to the Veda (Richard Garbe). While Dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, "The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex". Disagreeing with it Arthur Keith, for example in 1925, stated, "Samkhya owes its origin to the Vedic-Upanisadic-epic heritage is quite evident," and "Samkhya is most naturally derived out of the speculations in the Vedas, Brahmanas and the Upanishads". Many other scholars have discussed the probable reasons for the origin of this school of thought, though none of them can be proved or accepted as totally factual.

Between 1938 and 1969, two previously unknown manuscript editions of '''Yuktidipika''' were discovered and published. युक्तिदिपिका || Yuktidipika is an ancient review and has emerged as the most important commentary on Samkhyakarika – itself an ancient key text of the Samkhya school. This discovery and recent scholarship(Paul Hacker and others) suggests Samkhya was well established and existed vedic period in ancient India. However, almost nothing is preserved about the centuries when these ancient Samkhya scholars lived.

Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state that the newly discovered literature hints, but does not conclusively prove, that Samkhya may be the oldest school of Indian philosophy, one that evolved over time and influenced major schools, as well as Buddhism and Jainism. These scholars place the earliest references to Samkhya ideas in the Vedic period literature of India (~1500 BCE to ~400 BCE).

== Sankhya Siddhantam ==
'''Pramanas'''

It is based on systematic enumeration and using the three of six प्रमाणाः pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These include
* प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणाः || pratyaksha-pramana (perception),
* अनुमानप्रमाणाः anumana-pramana (inference) and
* शब्दप्रमाणाः sabda-pramana (aptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).
'''Dvaita Tatvam'''

Samkhya is strongly द्वैत || Dvaita (dualist) in its approach. Samkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities; पुरुष || Purusha (consciousness) and प्रकृति || Prakrti (matter). जीव || Jiva (a living being) is that state in which Purusha is bonded to Prakriti. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of बुद्धि || buddhi (intellect) and अहङ्कार || Ahankara (ego consciousness). The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakrti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called कैवल्य || kaivalya (liberation), by the Samkhya school.

'''Trigunas'''

Samkhya is known for its theory of गुण || gunas (qualities, innate tendencies). Guna, it states, are of three types: Satva, Rajas and Tamas.
* सत्त्व || Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive
* रजस || Rajas is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad
* तमस || Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative
Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.

'''Twenty Five Tattvas'''

It 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles.

[[File:Samkhya_Siddhantam.jpg|1148x1148px]]

'''Moksha for the Purusha'''

Samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every soul.

The Samkhya school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge. Samkhya considered प्रत्यक्ष || Pratyaksha or दर्शनम् || Darsanam (direct sense of eyes and perception), अनुमान || Anumana (inference), and शब्द || Sabda or अप्तवचन ||| Aptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shastras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or pramana. Unlike few other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas as epistemically proper: उपमान || Upamana (comparison and analogy), अर्थापत्ति || Arthaapatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or अनुपलब्दि || Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).

Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of prakruti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha. The 23 evolutes of prakuti are categorized as follows:

The Supreme Good is moksha which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain... in the realisation of the Self as Self pure and simple.

—Samkhyakarika I.3 Samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every soul. The Samkhyakarika states,

As the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf,
so the Prakriti functions for the sake of moksha of the spirit.

—Samkhya karika, Verse 57
Samkhya regards अविद्या || avidya (ignorance) as the root cause of suffering and संसार || Samsara (bondage). Samkhya states that the way out of this suffering is through विवेक || viveka (knowledge). मोक्ष || Moksha (liberation), states Samkhya school, results from knowing the difference between prakruti (avyakta-vyakta) and purusha (jña).

Purusha, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of prakrti such as बुद्धि || buddhi (intellect) and अहङ्कार || ahamkara (ego). This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that Purusha is distinct from prakrti, is more than empirical ego, and that Purusha is deepest conscious self within, the Self gains कैवल्य || kaivalya (isolation) and मोक्ष || moksha (liberation).

Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moksha is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of liberation, where Sattva guna predominates.

== Emergence as a distinct philosophy ==
The early texts of the Vedic period contain references to elements of Samkhya philosophy. However, the Samkhya ideas had not distilled and congealed into a distinct, complete philosophy. Sometime about the 5th century BCE, Samkhya thought from various sources started coalescing into a distinct, complete philosophy, according to some scholars.
* In the beginning this was Self alone, in the shape of a person (purusha). He looking around saw nothing but his Self (Atman). He first said, "This is I", therefore he became I by name. (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1)

* Philosophical texts such as the Katha Upanishad in verses 3.10-13 and 6.7-11 describe a well defined concept of Purusha and other concepts of Samkhya.
* The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in chapter 6.13 describes Samkhya with Yoga philosophy.
* Bhagavad Gita in Chap 2 provides textual evidence of Samkhya terminology and concepts.
* Katha Upanishad conceives the Purusha (cosmic spirit, consciousness) as same as the individual soul (Atman, Self).
* The Mokshadharma chapter of Shanti Parva (Book of Peace) in the Mahabharata epic, composed between 400 BCE to 400 CE, explains Samkhya ideas along with other extant philosophies, and then lists numerous scholars in recognition of their philosophical contributions to various Indian traditions, and therein at least three Samkhya scholars can be recognized – Kapila, Asuri and Pancasikha.
* The 12th chapter of the Buddhist text Buddhacarita suggests Samkhya philosophical tools of reliable reasoning were well formed by about 5th century BCE.
Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for first time in chapter 6.13 of the Shvetashvatra Upanishad, as सांख्य योग अधिगम्य || samkhya-yoga-adhigamya (literally, "to be understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline"). Bhagavad Gita identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge. The three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya. The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the भक्ति || bhakti (devotion) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman of Vedanta.

== Vedic and Upanishad Influences ==
The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, the karikas, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. The earliest mention of dualism is in the Rigveda, नासदीय सूक्त || Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe): Rigveda 10.129 hymn is one of the roots of the Samkhya.

—Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22 The emphasis of duality between सत् || sat (existence) and असत् || asat (non-existence) in the Nasadiya Sukta of the Rigveda is similar to the व्यक्त-अव्यक्त || vyakta–avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Purusha may also have influenced Samkhya. The Samkhya notion of buddhi or महत् || mahat is similar to the notion of हिरण्यगर्भ || hiranyagarbha, which appears in both the Rigveda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.

Higher than the senses, stand the objects of senses. Higher than objects of senses, stands mind. Higher than mind, stands intellect. Higher than intellect, stands the great self. Higher than the great self, stands Avyaktam. Higher than Avyaktam, stands Purusha. Higher than this, there is nothing. He is the final goal and the highest point. In all beings, dwells this Purusha, as आत्मन || Atman (soul), invisible, concealed. He is only seen by the keenest thought, by the sublest of those thinkers who see into the subtle.

—Katha Upanishad 3.10-13. The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. 900–600 BCE) contain speculations along the lines of classical Samkhya philosophy.

The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced back to the notion of ahamkara in chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and chapter 7.25 of the Chandogya Upanishad.

Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of सत् || sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and Shvetashvatara Upanishads.

Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni developed the idea that pure consciousness was the innermost essence of a human being. The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from this idea. The enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad and Yajnavalkya–Maitri sambhashanam in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

This declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of Samkhya. Hear, now, of the integrated wisdom with which, Partha, you will cast off the bonds of karma.

—Bhagavad Gita 2.39

== Other Textual Material ==
The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika (c. 200 CE or 350–450 CE) of Isvarak???a. There were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are available today.

Isvarak???a in his Karika describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila, through Asuri and Pañcasikha to himself. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called ?a??itantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost. The text was imported and translated into Chinese about the middle of the 6th century CE. The records of Al Biruni, the Persian visitor to India in the early 11th century, suggests Samkhyakarika was an established and definitive text in India in his times.

—Samkhya Karika Verse 4–6,
The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia was the Gau?apada Bha?ya attributed to Gau?apada, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Richard King, Professor of Religious Studies, thinks it is unlikely that Gau?apada could have authored both texts, given the differences between the two philosophies. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidipika (c. 6th century CE) and Vacaspati’s Sankhyatattvakaumudi (c. 10th century CE).

The Sankhyapravacana Sutra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika. Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Sa?khyasutrav?tti, c. 15th century CE), Vijñanabhik?u (Sa?khyapravacanabha?ya, c. 16th century CE), Mahadeva (v?ttisara, c. 17th century CE) and Nagesa (Laghusa?khyasutrav?tti). According to Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.

The 13th century text Sarvadarsanasangraha contains 16 chapters, each devoted to a separate school of Indian philosophy. The 13th chapter in this book contains a description of the Samkhya philosophy.

== Lost Textual References ==
In his Studies in Samkhya Philosophy, K.C. Bhattacharya writes:

Much of Samkhya literature appears to have been lost, and there seems to be no continuity of tradition from ancient times to the age of the commentators...The interpretation of all ancient systems requires a constructive effort; but, while in the case of some systems where we have a large volume of literature and a continuity of tradition, the construction is mainly of the nature of translation of ideas into modern concepts, here in Samkhya the construction at many places involves supplying of missing links from one's imagination. It is risky work, but unless one does it one cannot be said to understand Samkhya as a philosophy. It is a task that one is obliged to undertake. It is a fascinating task because Samkhya is a bold constructive philosophy.

== References ==
Presently Wikipedia

Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)

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== परिचय || Introduction ==
Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक) is one of the Shad Darsanas or the Veda Upangas which exist traditionally since ancient times in India. In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and path to mukti or liberation. Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and in it's theory of liberation to the Nyāya Darshana, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics.
* Vaiśeṣika school of philosophy accepts only two reliable means to knowledge: Pratyaksha pramana (perception) and Anumana pramana (inference).
* Vaiśeṣika considers their scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, and acknowledge that Vedas are the foundation of their siddhantas.
* Vaisheshika school is known for its insights in naturalism or Padarthajnana. It recognizes nine ultimate substances : Five material or perceivable substances and four inanimate or non-material substances. The five material substances are: Earth, water, fire, air and ''akasha''. The four non-material substances are: space, time, soul and mind. Earth, water, fire and air are atomic but ''akasha'' is non-atomic and infinite.
* It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indivisible, eternal, neither can be created or destroyed. Thus the Vaishesika explains the atomic theory far before any western discovery.
* Human experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.
* Vaisheshika contends that every effect is a fresh creation or a new beginning. Thus this system refutes the theory of pre-existence of the effect in the cause as does the Vedic philosophy.
* Kanada's Vaiseshika does not discuss much on God although this system accepts that God (''Ishvara'' ) is the efficient cause of the world. The eternal atoms are the material cause of the world.
* According to Vaiśeṣika school, knowledge and liberation are achievable by the complete understanding of the world of experience.

== Founder - Kaṇāda Kashyapa ==
Vaiśeṣika darshana was founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 2nd century BC.

== Vaiseshika Siddhantam ==
Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya school of Hinduism, the two became similar and are often studied together. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only two.

Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism accepted only two reliable means to knowledge - perception and inference.

Vaisheshika espouses a form of atomism, that the reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, fire). Each of these four are of two types, explains Ganeri, परमाणु || paramāṇu (atomic) and composite (analogous to molecule). <blockquote>An "'''Anu'''" is that which is small, indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension. "</blockquote><blockquote>A '''composite''' is that which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, and even the smallest perceptible thing, namely, a fleck of dust, has parts, which are therefore invisible. "</blockquote>The Vaiśeṣikas visualized the smallest composite thing as a “triad” (tryaṇuka) with three parts, each part with a “dyad” (dyaṇuka). Vaiśeṣikas believed that a dyad has two parts, each of which is an atom. Size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements.

Vaisheshika postulated that what one's experiences is derived from
# dravya (substance: a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements),
# guna (quality), karma (activity),
# samanya (commonness),
# vishesha (particularity) and
# samavaya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).

== Literature of Vaisheshika ==
The earliest systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda (or Kaṇabhaksha). This treatise is divided into ten books.
* The two commentaries on the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, Rāvaṇabhāṣya and Bhāradvājavṛtti are extant.
* Praśastapāda’s Padārthadharmasaṁgraha (c. 4th century) commonly known as bhāṣya of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, this treatise is basically an independent work on the subject.
* Candra’s Daśapadārthaśāstra (648) based on Praśastapāda’s treatise is available only in Chinese translation. The earliest commentary available on Praśastapāda’s treatise is Vyomaśiva’s Vyomavatī (8th century). The other three commentaries are Śridhara’s Nyāyakandalī (991), Udayana’s Kiranāvali (10th century) and Śrivatsa’s Līlāvatī (11th century).
* Śivāditya’s Saptapadārthī which also belongs to 11th century, presents the Nyāya and the Vaiśeṣika principles as a part of one whole.
* Śaṁkara Miśra’s Upaskāra on Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is also an important work.

== The Categories or Padārtha ==
According to the Vaisheshika school, all things which exist, which can be cognised, and which can be named are padārthas (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories as follows<blockquote>1.'''Dravya''' '''(substance):''' The substances are conceived as 9 in number. They are, पृथ्वी || pṛthvī (earth), आपः || apa (water), तेजस् || tejas (fire), वायु || vāyu (air), आकाश || ākaśa (ether), काल || kāla (time), दिक् || dik (space), आत्मन || ātman (self or soul) and मनस || manas (mind). The first five are called भूत || bhūtas, the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses."</blockquote><blockquote>2.'''Guṇa (quality):''' The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra mentions 17 guṇas (qualities), to which Praśastapāda added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a guṇa(quality) cannot exist so. The original 17 guṇas (qualities) are, rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparśa (touch), saṁkhyā (number), parimāṇa (size/dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality), saṁyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhāga (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these Praśastapāda added gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit), śabda (sound) and saṁskāra (faculty)."</blockquote><blockquote>3.'''Karma (activity):''' The karmas (activities) like guṇas (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one. Ākāśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space) and ātman (self), though substances, are devoid of karma (activity)."</blockquote><blockquote>4.'''Sāmānya (generality):''' Since there are plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called sāmānya."</blockquote><blockquote>5.'''Viśeṣa (particularity):''' By means of viśeṣa, we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the viśeṣas."</blockquote><blockquote>6.'''Samavāya (inherence):''' Kaṇāda defined samavāya as the relation between the cause and the effect. Praśastapāda defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of samavāya is not perceivable but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances."</blockquote>Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as '''Artha''' (which can perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as '''budhyapekṣam''' (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

== The atomic theory ==
According to the Vaiśeṣika school, the trasareṇu are the smallest mahat (perceivable) particles and defined as tryaṇukas (triads). These are made of three parts, each of which are defined as dvyaṇuka (dyad). The dvyaṇukas are conceived as made of two parts, each of which are defined as paramāṇu (atom). The paramāṇus (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, they can neither be created nor destroyed. Each paramāṇu (atom) possesses its own distinct viśeṣa (individuality).

The measure of the partless atoms is known as parimaṇḍala parimāṇa. It is eternal and it cannot generate the measure of any other substance. Its measure is its own absolutely.

== Notes ==
# Amita Chatterjee (2011), Nyāya-vaiśeṣika Philosophy, The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.003.0012
# DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7</nowiki>
# Analytical philosophy in early modern India J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
# M Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120810860</nowiki>
# MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2)
# B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0198239765</nowiki>

== References ==
# Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986), Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, <nowiki>ISBN 81-7007-023-6</nowiki>.
# Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8</nowiki>.

== Further reading ==
# Bimal Matilal (1977), A History of Indian Literature - Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <nowiki>ISBN 978-3447018074</nowiki>, OCLC 489575550
# Gopi Kaviraj (1961), Gleanings from the history and bibliography of the Nyaya-Vaisesika literature, Indian Studies: Past & Present, Volume 2, Number 4, OCLC 24469380

Angirasa (अङ्गिरसः)

2017-09-12T10:24:18Z

P16232: /* सम्वाद || Discussion */

Angirasa (Sanskrit : अङ्गिरसः) or Angira (Sanskrit : अङ्गिरः) is associated with several vedic and puranic individuals. Descendants of Angirasa are called Aangirasa (आङ्गिरसः), who are credited with the darshana of many Rig vedic mantras.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The different references to Angirasa are presented in different texts as follows
* Angirasa is a rishi (or sage) who, along with Sage Atharvana, is credited to have formulated most of the fourth Veda called Atharva Veda. Alongside, the episodes of Angirasa have also been mentioned in the Rig, Sama, and Yajur Vedas.
* Angirasa, a rishi who undertook the upasana of important pranas of the body. Hence the main prana is thought of as Angirasa by rishis. (chandogya upanishad).
* Angirasa has also been referred to as one of the seven sages or Saptarshis of the first Manvantara with others. His wife’s name was Surupa. He had three sons namely Samvartana, Utatya, and Brihaspati (Aangirasa) who, along with Sage Atharvana, is credited to have formulated most of the fourth Veda called Atharva Veda.
* Angirasa is one amongst the ten Brahma Manasaputras, i.e. sons born by mere thought or manas, of Lord Brahma. Upon Brahma’s desire, through his wife Shraddha, Angirasa begot seven sons: Brihat Keerti, Brihat Jyoti, Brihat Brahma, Brihan Manas, Brihan Mantra, Brihat Bhanu, Brihaspati. He also had daughters namely Bhanumati, Raka, CineeVali, Mahishmati, Guhu, Mahamati , Archishamati and Yogasiddhi. ( Mahabharata)
* Angirasa the son of Ulmuka and younger brother of Anga who is a King. It is said that Anga married Suneedha while Angirasa got married to Smriti, the daughter of Daksha prajapati.
* Angirasa is closely associated with agni, being born from sacrificial fire of Varuna: "Varunasya Rutoujatahpawakadity nah shrutam" (Mahabharata 1.5.8).
* Angirasa is identified with Agni:
<blockquote>"
''यदंग दाषुशे त्वं, अग्ने भद्रं करिष्यसि ।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''तदैतद् सत्यमङ्गिरः॥ (Rig-Veda 1.1.6)''"</blockquote>
* References to [[Kutsa Angirasa (कुत्स अङ्गिरसः)|Kutsa Angirasa]], [[Sapta Angirasa (सप्त अङ्गिरसः)|Sapta Angirasa]], Uru Angirasa and Prabhavasu Angirasas are seen in different mantras of Rig veda.
* As mentioned in the Rig-Veda (10.108), Angirasa is the one to whom Indra presents all the cows after freeing them from the captivation of Asura named Vala and several other asuras called the Panis.

== Textual References ==
* '''Rk Samhita''' : [[Sayanacharya (सायनाचार्यः)|Sri Sayanacharya's]] explanation refers to Angirasa as one who traverses with great speed.
<blockquote>"
''“unganthi gachanthi ittangiraso ganthara'' ''(Rk Samhita, 1.100.4)'' "</blockquote>
* '''Nirukta''' : Yaskacharya's explanation is connected to the appearance of Angirasa.
<blockquote>"
''“angaresu angiraha angaraha ankanaha anchanaha'' ''(Nirukta 3.17)''"</blockquote>He was born from the “retas or the semen of Brahma and it was blazing like cinder and then first Aditya appeared and then Angirasa. Even for agni there is a word called "Angaraha" meaning one which creates an impression “anka or sign. Similarly Angirasa also means: one who creates a lasting impression in others.
* '''Brahmana''' : Taitriya Brahmana explains Angirasa as those who are like the cinder or angi.
<blockquote>"
''“ye angara asanthe angiraso abhavan (Taitriya Brahmana 3.34)''"</blockquote>
* '''Upanishad''' : Chandogya Upanishad explains that because all the limbs of the body are controlled by “prana that “mukya prana itself has become anga rasa or angirasa.
<blockquote>"
''“tadaham angiraha udgitaha upasam cakre ethave eva etharssam angiraha anthe anganagam hi esha rasaha (Chan Upan 1.2.10)'' "</blockquote>
* In the Upanayanam kriya (thread ceremony) the Initiator, prays "let my medha shakti, the wisdom power, increase like Angirasa.
<blockquote>"
''“medham mayyam angiraso medhagam sapta rushayo daduhu medham mayyam prajapathihi medhaamagnir dadathu me“ ('''Mampra 2.4.6''')''"</blockquote>Plentiful are such references in the vedangas. The mention of Angirasa in various scriptures and the significance of Angirasa's knowledge of the characteristics of cows is also noteworthy as evident from the Rg Veda 10th mandala mantras.

== Angirasa and Gograhana ==
In the '''Rg Veda (10.108)''', there is a story of Angirasa in connection with the cows. This particular legend of stealing of Cows or गोग्रहणम्॥ Gograhanam has been described vividly in Rig Veda 3.31, and 10.108, including a reference in 8.14. Again, a description on the family of Angirasa is given in the Mandala 6 of the Rig-Veda.

The legend goes that Panis were the demons who stole the cows
and hid them in a cave. Indra asks his dog Sarama to find the cows. Sarama was able to find the cows' whereabouts in the first instance'''.''' During
that search, an important discussion between the Panis and Sarama occurs. Angirasa rushi then helped Indra to locate the Panis who stole the cows.

The '''Rg Mantra 97.36''' explains how Angirasa assisted Indra. <blockquote>"
''“yena naha purve pitaraha padjna svarvido abhigha adrimushnan'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
''"In our family and ancestors, the pitris, there is Angirasa who, a sarvajna, knowledgeable about the para loka, brought back the stolen cows which were identified by their foot marks (characteristics) from mountains".''"</blockquote>This reference is also found in the '''Jaimineeya Brahmana, II.440-442.''' Here, the cows are clearly referred to as the cows of the Gods stolen by the Panis. This time, the Gods first send SuparNa, the eagle or the Sun-bird. However, the PaNis bribe him into silence, and he accepts their gifts and returns without any information. The enraged Gods strangle him, and he vomits out the curds, etc. received from the PaNis. Then the Gods send SaramA. She crosses the river RasA and approaches the PaNis. She is also offered bribes, but (as in the Rigveda) she refuses their blandishments and returns to Indra with the information that the cows are hidden inside the RasA. She and her descendants are then blessed by a grateful Indra.

In the '''Brhaddevata, viii 24-36''' the same sequence of events takes place, but this time SaramA accepts the bribe of the PaNis, and apparently transfers her loyalties to them. When she returns to Indra and refuses to disclose the hideout of the cows, Indra kicks her in a rage. She vomits out the milk received as a bribe, and then goes back to trace the PaNis.

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==
As seen in the story of Angirasa protecting the cows, there is a historical and legendary perspective to it. If historically Panis are considered Dravidians and Angirasa a brahamana,some questions arise,
# ''Is it a conflict between Dravidian sudras and brahmanas?''
# ''If panis were business minded people and doing agriculture work, did they not have cows?''
# ''What does that mean by stealing cows?''
So this esoteric knowledge has been deliberately misused by the Indologists to create a wrong notion of shastras and create oppositional categories to suit their colonial agenda.

====== Explanation ======
Here “go means the “'''adhyatma vidya (spiritual knowledge)''' that is endorsed in Vedas and the foot marks of cows (characteristics) means actually explaining the meaning of the Vedic words which are esoteric which are to be deciphered properly. And those who understand this knowledge are called '''padajna''' (having the knowledge of the Veda). The 4 legs of this Kamadhenu the Vedas are dharma, artha, kama, moksha – which are the purusharthas.

Therefore which mantras provide for which purushartha was known very well to Angirasa rushi. As he was knowledgeable in mantras which leads one to the “parama pada or the highest abode he was the '''sarvavidaha or sarvajna''' as explained in Rk Samhita 1.164.45 :<blockquote>"
''चत्वारिवाक परिमितापदानितानि विदुर्ब्राह्मणाये मनीषिणः|'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
''गुहा तरीणि निहिता नेङगयन्ति तुरीयं वाचो मनुष्या वदन्ति || (The Rig Veda 1.164.45)''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''catvarivak parimitapadanitani vidurbrahmana ye minishinah |''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''guha tarini nihita neengayanti turiyam vaco manushyavadanti ||''"</blockquote>These “'''paraha''' (), “'''pasyanthi''' (), “'''madhyama''' () and “'''vaikhari''' () are the 4 ways of speech . Those who understand the meaning of these words or “padas are called '''padajna''' (knower of those speech) or “svarvida (these four paadas(legs) or padas (the sentences). The '''purusharthas''' which are called “chatvari-sringa, are known as the 4 horns of the “agni purusha or fire personified and the relationship they have with each other can only be understood by the process of yoga (upasana).

====== Esoteric Understanding of Angirasa bringing the cows ======
The esoteric meaning of bringing down the cows (synonymous to the Vedas) from the mountain top is very significant. The panis have common knowledge, who cannot assimilate the high standard of Vedic knowledge. Their carrying away the cows symbolises that even if they take it away they do not get any benefit or they will not understand the esoteric meaning. And the “go (cows) or the Vedic words were not damaged. The knowledgeable who had faith in these cows, were inconvenienced. Those who do not understand the meaning of Vedas, such people may be in disguise and steal the words of Vedas, but they won’t get the benefit of the Vedas.

Vedas are meaningless, insignificant and contain useless subject matter for them and they may distort the Vedas to compile their philosophies based on their erroneous understanding, but such people will not get any benefit. Those who are faithful to the Vedas and who lived life by following the Vedas, such people they may be inconvenienced by the Panis. However, great rushis like Angirasa who understand the meaning of Vedas and those who have the knowledge of the '''sampradaya, the “veda prajnas''' they bring down the cows from mountains despite the great difficulties and provide deeper meaning of Vedas to the qualified people and in this way become the support to the governance of this world, which is managed by Indra. If we see from such perspective, since the time of Rishis, the number of panis have increased.

In the name of the Vedas those who study vedas and then criticize the Vedic concept, the researchers and in the name of research, the Christian missionaries, those who follow their path—our own people, the leftists, and those people those who have given up the Sanatana values and spreading destructive life systems and those who are practicing atheistic concepts, the modern lokayuthas and those who have accepted the transformation of the Vedas in wrong way, these are all Panis. Therefore to protect DHarma from these disturbing elements and thought processes, people like Angirasa were committed to fight them and thus their work is significant.

== References ==
# SaramA and the PaNis: A Mythological Theme in the Rigveda from the site http://voiceofdharma.org/books/rig/ch10.htm
# '''Rig veda'''
# '''Brhaddevata,'''
# Mahabharata

Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)

2017-09-12T10:09:48Z

P16232: /* Etymology */

Aaranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक) are generally the concluding portions of the several Brahmanas, but on account of their distinct character, contents and language deserve to be reckoned as a distinct category of literature. The term Aranyaka is derived from the word ‘अरण्य ॥ Aranya‘ meaning ‘forest’. The Aranyaka texts are so-called because ‘they were works to be read in the forest’ as against the Brahmanas, which were to be used by those in grihastha ashrama.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.[1] The Samhitas are sometimes identified as कर्म खण्ड || ''karma-kanda'' (action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ज्ञान खण्ड || ''jnana-kanda'' (knowledge/spirituality-related section).[1] The Aaranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aaranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the Jnana-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.[2]

Another learned author says: These are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.[3]

== Etymology ==
Aranyakas are partly included in the Brahmanas themselves, but partly they are recognized as independent works. Aranyaka literature is rather small as compared to the Brahmanas. Whereas the Brahmanas deal with a huge bulk of sacrificial topics which represents ''Karma-Kanda'', the Aranyakas and Upanishads, on the other hand, chiefly deal with the philosophical and theosophical speculations which represent ''Jnana-Kanda''.

Sayana has the definition आरन्यव्रतरुपम् ब्रह्मणम् || Aaranyavratarupam brahamanam. He in his introduction to his commentary on the Aitereya Brahmana writes <blockquote>ऐतरेयब्राह्मणेऽस्ति काण्डमारण्यकाभिधम् ।</blockquote><blockquote>अरण्य ऐव पाठ्यत्वादारण्यकमितीर्यते ॥ (5)</blockquote><blockquote>सत्रप्रकरणेऽनुक्तिररण्याध्ययनाय हि ।</blockquote><blockquote>महाव्रतस्य तस्यात्र हौत्र कर्म विविच्यते ॥ (6)</blockquote>Sayana in the Taittiriya Aranyaka explains-

''अरण्यध्ययनद एतद् अरन्यकम् इतिर्यते || Aranyadhyayanad-etad –aranyakam-itiryate.''

''Yajna'' and other rituals are prescribed only for those who live in homes and lead the life of house-holders. But it has to be understood that Vedic rituals are intended to confer not only material benefits but also mental purity by constant discipline. Having obtained purity, one must seek the solitude of forests for further concentration and meditation.

According to Sankara (BAU, ASS, 15, 3) also Aranyaka is so called because it is to be learnt or studied in the forest. The Brahmanas advocating the actual observances of the sacrifices are meant for गृहस्थ || ''Grihastha'' and the आरण्यक || Aranyakas containing explanations of the rituals and allegorical speculations thereon are meant for वानप्रस्थ || ''Vanprasthas'', who renounce family life residing in the forests for tapas and other religious activities.

Alternately, the reason might be that these texts were propounded by the Rishis who resided in the forests and thought upon the secrets of the ''Yajnas''. Aranyakas describe the actions of life and also acquisition of knowledge. These works form the basis of the रहस्य || ''Rahasya'' (secrets) discussed in the Upanishads, therefore, another name of the Aranyakas was ‘''Rahasya''‘ as well. This name is mentioned in the Gopatha Brahmana (2.10, Purvabhaga) and Manusmriti (2.140) Pg No 280 of Ref 5).

== '''Dating of Aranyaka''' ==
'''They are said to have formed at the end of the Vedic period.'''

== Contents ==
The major contents of the Aranyakas are ब्रह्मविद्या || ''Brahmavidya'' (theosophy), उपासना || ''Upasana (''meditation) and प्राणविद्या || ''Pranavidya'' (knowledge of breath). They describe the secret meaning of the sacrifice and the concept of Brahma as well. They constitute a natural transition to the Upanishads. For example,

Last four adhyayas of the Second Kanda of Aitareya Aaranyaka forms the Aiteraya Upanishad.

Third to sixth Kandas of Kausitaki Aaranya forms the Kausitaki Upanishad.

=== Saamyam between Aranyakas and Brahmanas ===
Following are the similarities between Aranyakas and Brahmanas.
* Aranyakas also have ritualistic descriptions like the Brahmanas.
** Pravargya in Taitreya Aranyaka IV, V and Shatapataha Brahmana (14),
** Arunaketuka chayana of Taitreya Aranyaka (I)
** Kushmanda homa and Brahmayagna in Taitreya Aranyaka (II)
** Chaaturhotraasheeti in Taitreya Aranyaka (III)

* They have the विधि || Vidhi and अर्थवाद || Arthavada divisions like Brahmanas. Like the Brahmanas they also explain, glorify, justify and recommend particular rites as seen in Arthavadas.

* Aranyakas like brahmanas use etymologies for emphasizing the significance of any particular rite. For Ex Aitereya Aranyaka II.2.2 in the Mahavrata rite the significance of प्राण || Prana (Breath) is emphasised.

* Indirect designation is vastly used in Aranyakas for explaining instances or descriptions related to deities by परोक्ष विधान || paroksha vidhana. For ex : derivation of name of Indra (AA II.4.3) and explanation of word Pada (AA II.2.2 Pg 16 of Chap 1 of Ref 6 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/handle/10603/152121 ).

=== Saamyam between Aranyakas and Upanishads ===
The main characteristic bridging feature of the Aranyakas is the tendency of inwardisation or moving to the higher plane of mental faculties (symbolism and mental sacrifices) from rituals or actions. Thus, the words Atma and Brahman are substituted for the word Prana in the Aranyakas. The aranya vaasis are trained to wean away from the performance of outer worldly formal sacrifices (consisting of oblations of rice or milk) and to focus on the inner or mental sacrifices substituting them with simpler ceremonial items such as water.

Thus, although sacrificial rites are described in Aranyakas they expound the symbolism and mysticism of these sacrifices rather than focus on the action of the ritual, the associated rules for performance of a ritual and the explanation of the rites connected with them. For ex the प्रवर्ग्य || Pravargya ritual is described in the Taitreya Aranyaka identifies Pravargya with the sun or Aditya (TA V.4.8) suggesting that the essence consists of meditating upon it as Aditya rather than in performing the actual ritual. Arunaketuka deals with Arunaketuka or fire, which begins with a highly philosophical description of काल || kaala.

The creation of the universe, the power of the Almighty, Om, the soul and the cycle of birth and death are explained in Brihadaranyaka in a simple manner. No nation, no country, no culture in this age of science has been able to produce such great truths related to the knowledge of the Self and the Almighty as are mentioned in this Aranyaka. In this reference dialogue between Maitreyi and Yajnavalkya is often quoted.

Brihadaranyaka found in the Shatapatha Brahmana which is highly referred of all Upanishads, is regarded as the Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad also.

Aranyakas play the role of the middle path and help to bridge the gulf between the ''Karma- kanda'' and ''Jnana-kanda''. Questions began to be asked about topics such as Universe, creation, death, and moksha. Thus the question answer format that we see in the Upanishads is by no means lacking in the Aranyakas.

In the Aranyakas we find certain important geographical, historical, social and cultural points also.

== Classification of the Aranyakas ==
Today only seven Aranyakas are available. There is no Aranyaka which belongs to the Atharvaveda.

'''(A) ''Aranyakas of the Rigveda:'''''
# Aitareya Aranyaka
# Kaushitaki / Shankhayana Aranyaka
'''(B) ''Aranyakas of the Samaveda:'''''
# Talavakara or Jaiminiya-Upanshad Aranyaka
# Chandogya- Aranyaka
'''(C) ''Aranyaka of Shukla Yajurveda:'''''
# Brihadaranyaka
'''(D) ''Aranyakas of Krishna Yajurveda:'''''
# Taittiriya Aranyaka
# Maitrayaniya Aranyaka
Among them Aitareya Aranyaka, Shatapatha Aranyaka and Taittiriya Aranyaka are most important for study.

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==
The ''Aranyakas'' form the third part of the Vedas. The ''Aranyakas'' were developed by the hermits, living in the forests. The ''Aranyakas'' reflect an explicit transition in the philosophy of life of man. The speculative and intuitive thinking seems to be developing. Meditative thinking is conspicuous. The Vedic man seems to be turning from the gross to the subtle. His quest for knowledge seems to be intensified.<ref name=":122"><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>

Aranyakas teach methods of meditation based upon symbolical interpretations of sacrificial rites - a process of performing Yajnas and sacrifices at the mental level. For example Brihadaranyaka Upanishad starts with such analytical mental performance of अश्वमेध यज्ञ || Aswamedha Yajna.<ref>[http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Vedas-and-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Vedas-and-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx, Part c] </ref>

Gopatha Brahmana is regarded as its Aranyaka, a remnant of a larger, lost Atharva (Paippalada) Brahmana.

=== Aitareya Aranyaka ===
Consists of five books each of which is again called Aranyaka. The five books together contain 18 adhyayas subdivided into Kandas.Mahidasa Aitereya, who had compiled and expounded the Aitereya Brahmana also expounded the first of the three (books) Aranyakas of the Aitereya Aranyaka. The fourth was given by Ashvalaayana and the fifth by Saunaka. Aitareya Aranyaka says ‘The same Real is worshiped as उक्थ || Uktha in the Rk, as Agni in the Yajuh and as Mahavrata in the Sama.’ (Aitareya Aranyaka, III. 2. 3. 12). Thus the Aranyaka introduces the concept of unifying the different aspects given in Vedas thus paving way to philosophical considerations.
* The first Aranyaka discusses ‘Mahaa-vrata’ (which is a part of the Gavvamayana sattra described in AB III) or fundamental duties and vows and the saamana stotras to be sung in a particular day.
* The second Aranyaka has six chapters of which the first three are about ‘Praana-vidyaa’ – meaning, Prana, the Vital Air that constitutes the life-breath of a living body is also the life-breath of all mantras, all vedas and all vedic declarations (cf. 2.2.2 of Aitareya Aranyaka). It is in this portion of the Aranyaka that one finds specific statements about how one who follows the vedic injunctions and performs the sacrifices goes to become the God of Fire, or the Sun or Air and how one who transgresses the Vedic prescriptions is born into lower levels of being, namely, as birds and reptiles. Chapters 4 to 6 constitute the [[Aitareya Upanishad]].
* The third Aranyaka is also known as ‘Samhitopanishad’. This elaborates on the various ways – like पद पाठ || pada-paatha, क्रम पाठ || krama-paatha, etc. – of reciting the Vedas and the nuances of the स्वर || svaras, division of vowels and consonants. This aranyaka mentions a large number of rishis.
* The fourth Aranyaka has a collection of ‘Mahaanaamni richaas’ also available in Saamaveda.
* The fifth Aranyaka is devoted to the nishkaivalya sastra. This is in sutra style and recited during the afternoon ceremony of the mahavrata.

=== Taittiriya Aranyaka ===
Consists of 10 Prapathakas or Aranas or chapters which are divided into anuvakas. The first two prapathakas are known as काथक || Kaathaka, which were not native to the tradition of the Taittiriya [[shakha]]. There is a disagreement about the number of अनुवाक || anuvakas and interpolations, as per the different commentators of the Tattiriya Aranyaka.

Prapathaka 1 discusses the Arunaketuka fire.

Prapathaka 2 is about five Mahā-yajñas which include Svaadhyaya, Yagnopaveeta vidhi, sandhya and enumerate the mantras for Kushmanda homa.

Prapathaka 3, contains mantras for Chaturhitraasheeti homa and others.

Prapathaka 4, provides the mantras used in the [[pravargya]] yagna.

Prapathaka 5, contains the brahmana or the explanation of the Pravargya-yajña.

Prapathaka 6, contains the पित्रमेध || ‘pitṛmedha’ mantras, recited during the rituals for the disposal of the dead body.

Chapters 7, 8 and 9, are the three vallis of the well-known [[Taittiriya Upanishad]].

Chapter 10, is also known as the "[[Mahanarayana Upanishad]]".

Other important parts of this Aranyaka include

The famous Subrahmanya richa (1.12.3)

The description of hell is mentioned. (1.20.1).

Four types of waters are mentioned - चत्वारि व अपाम् रूपाणि | मेघो विद्युत स्तनयित्नुर्वृष्टिः || Chatvari va apaam rupaani. Megho vidyut stanayitnurvrishtih (1.24.1)

The यज्ञोपवीत || yagnopavita (sacred tread) is found mentioned for the first time in this aranyaka. It is stated that a yagna performed by a person wearing the sacred thread was well recognised and brahmana reciting the vedas while wearing the sacred thread performs actually a yagna: प्रसृतो ह यज्ञोपवीतिनो यज्ञ. (2.1.1)

Boudha bhikshus were designated as श्रमण || sramanas in this aranyaka; the same word refers to a person who performs penance. (2.7.1)

it is the most useful aranyaka as it explains many mantras.

=== Brhadaaranyaka of Yajurveda ===
Brhadaranyaka of Madhyandina shaka

It is the aranyaka associated with Shatapata brahmana of Shukla Yajurveda. It has 6 chapters and 44 sub brahmanas in all. These sub-brahmanas have further been divided into कण्ड || kandas and कण्डिका || kandikaas.

Brhadaranyaka of Kanva shaka

This aranyaka is composed of 6 brahmanas or chapters and a total of 47 sub-brahmanas. however this aranyaka is also named as Upanishad. It has a description of the intricacies of yagnas and the main subject matter relates to the soul. Yagnavalkya is the main characted of this aranyaka with whom King Janaka of Videha engages in spiritual discussion. This Upanishad is widely popular and the exhalted image of Brahmavaadinis like Gargi and Maitreyi is narrated in it.

=== Talavakaara Aranyaka ===
Consists of four chapters, which are further subdivided into anuvakas and kandas. The famous Kenaopanishad consists of the 10th to 14th anuvaka of the 4th chapter.

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==
== References ==
{{reflist}}
# Aitareya Aranyaka – A Study . Dr. Suman Sharma. Eastern Book Linkers. New Delhi 1981
# Taittiriya Aranyaka, with Sayana Bhashya . Anandashram, Pune 1926.
# Bhagyalata A. Pataskar, The Kaṭhakāraṇyakam (With text in Devanāgarī, Introduction and translation. New Delhi: Adarsha Sanskrit Shodha Samstha / Vaidika Samshodhana Mandala, 2009.
# Dr.Shashi Tiwari (Retd.), Sanskrit Department, Delhi University at <nowiki>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/</nowiki>
# A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature, Brahmana and Aranyaka works by Satya Shrava
# A critical study of the Aranyakas by Deshpande, I. C.http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/handle/10603/152121

Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)

2017-09-12T10:05:12Z

P16232: /* Dating of Brahmanas */

The '''Brahmanas''' (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|ब्राह्मणम्}}, ''Brāhmaṇa'') are a collection of ancient texts with commentaries on the mantras of the four [[Vedas]]. They are attached to each Veda and contain the explanation for the difficult meanings and thus the knowledge of Veda Samhitas is revealed.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.<ref name=":0222">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0595384556</nowiki>, pages 8-14</ref> The Samhitas are sometimes identified as कर्म खण्ड || ''karma-kanda'' (action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ज्ञान खण्ड || ''jnana-kanda'' (knowledge/spirituality-related section).<ref name=":0222" /> The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the Jnana-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.<ref name=":1222"><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>

Another learned author says: These are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.<ref name=":2222">Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad, Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, Published by Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore, Page 75 (Glossary)</ref>

== व्युत्पत्तिः || Etymology ==
The word {{lang|2=ब्राह्मणम्}} || Brahmana in neuter gender means Brahmana texts. One wonders why these literary compositions are given this name even though the authors of Brahmanas and their commentators have not offered any definition of this word.
* According to '''Shatapatha Braahmana''' the word "Brahma" means the samhita part of the four vedas (Shat. Brah. 7.1.1.5). The collection of mantras from these samhita parts of the four vedas are termed as Braahmanas.
* '''आपस्तम्ब || Apastamba''' defines Brahmanas as ‘कर्मचोदना ब्राह्मणानि || Karmacodana Brahmanani’ meaning Brahmanas are injunctions for the performance of sacrificial rites (Apasthamba Shrau. Sut. 34 and 35).
* '''Jaimini Purvameemamsa darshana''' says शेषे ब्राह्मण शब्दः || sheshe brahmana shabdah ("what is not a mantra the rest of it is brahmana") (2.1.33)
* '''Sayanaacharya''' has said in the introduction of his commentary on the Rigveda:
<blockquote>"
''"Which in tradition is not a hymn or a Mantra is a Brahmana and which is not Brahmana is a Mantra".''"</blockquote>The term 'Brahmana' has been variously interpreted by the scholars. It comes from the word ब्रह्मन् || ''Brahman'' which means ब्रह्म वै मन्त्रः || "''Brahma Vai Mantrah''"(both the Veda and the Mantra). Thus the word Brahmana means 'that which relates to ''Brahman'' or the Veda'. It is derived from the root बृः || brih 'to grow', 'to expand'.

In other words, the name 'Brahmana' means the explanation of a ritual by a learned priest. Later this word came to mean a collection of such explanations by the priest on the science of sacrifice. The Brahmanas are thus the ritual text-books on the details of sacrifice or ''Yajna''.

''Brahmanas'' lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing chapters that constitute [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] or [[Upanishad|Upanishads]] in their own right. Each Vedic शाखा || ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own ''Brahmana''. Numerous ''Brahmana'' texts existed in ancient India, many of which have been lost. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety.

== Dating of Brahmanas ==
The dating of the final codification of the ''Brahmanas'' and associated Vedic texts is controversial. The oldest is dated to about 900 [[BCE]], while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE. '''According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and early Upanishads took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).'''

'''Erdosy suggests that the later Brahmanas were composed during a period of urbanisation and considerable social change. This period also saw significant developments in mathematics, geometry, biology and grammar.'''

== Contents ==
According to Apasthamba , these texts deal with the following six topics: Vidhi Arthavada , Ninda, Prashansha , Purakalpa and Parakriti.
# ''विधि || Vidhi'' means injunctions for the performance of particular rites.
# ''अर्थवाद || Arthavada'' comprises the numerous explanatory remarks on the meaning of Mantras and particular rites.
# ''निन्दा || Ninda'' or censure consists in criticism and, refutation of the opponents' views.
# ''स्थुति || Sthuti or प्रशन्सा || Prashansha'' means eulogy, recommendation.
# ''पुराकल्प || Puraakalpa'' refers to the performance of sacrificial rites in former times.
# ''पराकृति || Parakriti'' means the achievements of others.
The main subject of the Brahmanas is injunction (Vidhi), all other topics being subservient to it. Sayana states that performance of vedic activities is inspired by vidhi and arthavaada only:

द्विविधम् ब्राह्मनाम् विधिहि अनुवादस्च || "Dvividham braahmanam vidhihi anuvaadascha" (Rig bhashya bhu 9).

Thus, they may be classified differently. Shabara, in his commentary, has summed up their subjects into ten following heads:
# ''हेतु || Hetu'' - reasons
# ''निर्वचन || Nirvacana'' - etymology
# ''निन्दा || Ninda'' - censure ,condemn
# ''प्रशन्सा || Prashansha'' - eulogy, praise
# ''संशय || Sanshaya'' - doubt,uncertainty
# ''विधि || Vidhi'' - injunction,sanction
# ''पराक्रिया || Parakriya'' - feats/deeds of others
# ''पुरकल्प || Purakalpa'' - legendary background
# ''व्यवधारण कल्पना || Vyavadharana''- Kalpana - managerial application
# ''उपमान || Upamana'' - illustration.
''Yajna'' is not only sacrifice. In Brahmanas we find it as symbolic also. Here it often represents the knowledge of creation and thus describes the secrets of creation.

== Classification of Brahmanas ==
Each Brahmana is associated with one of the four Vedas, and within the tradition of that Veda with a particular [[shakha]] or school. Originally, there were numerous Brahmanas, of which only a few have survived to us. For each Samhita, there are corresponding Brahmanas which are listed here:

=== (A) Rigveda ===
There are two available brahamanas associated with Rig veda.
# '''ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण || Aitareya Brahmana''' : It consists of 40 अध्याय || ''adhyayas'' (lessons, chapters), dealing with Soma sacrifice, and in particular the fire sacrifice ritual.
# '''कौषितकी / सङ्खयन ब्राह्मण || Kaushitaki / Sankhayana Brahmana''' : It consists of 30 chapters, the first six of which are dedicated to food sacrifice, and the remaining to Soma sacrifice in a manner matching the Aitareya Brahmana.
Earlier Rig samhita was supposed to have 21 shakas and each shaka had an associated brahmana. Four of the Rig samhita brahmanas namely Paingi, Bahvrucha, Aashvalayana, Gaalava brahmanas are lost in time. Some say that बहुव्रुच ब्राह्मण || Bahvrucha brahmana is the same as Aitareya brahmana.

=== (B) Yajus Samhita ===
Brahmanas of Yajur veda includes two important shakas.
# '''Shukla-yajurveda''' : (1) Maadhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana and (2) Kanva Shatapatha Brahmana are available.
# '''Krishna-Yajurveda''' : (1) Taittiriya Brahmana is available.

The Satapatha Brahmana consists of a hundred अध्याय || ''adhyayas'' (chapters), and is the most cited and famous among the Brahmana texts. Much of the text is commentaries on Vedic rituals, such as the preparation of the fire altar. It also includes [[Upanayana]], a ceremony that marked the start of [[Brahmacharya]] (student) stage of life, as well as the Vedic era recitation practice of [[Svādhyāya|Svadhyaya]]. The text describes procedures for other important Hindu rituals such as a funeral ceremony. The old and famous [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] form the closing chapters of Śatapatha Brahmana.

Twelve Yajus samhita related brahmanas have been lost in time. They are Charaka, Svetasvatara, Kaathaka, or Shataadhyayana, Maitraayani, Jaabala, Khandikeya, Oukheya, Haridravika, Tumburu, Aavhvaraka, Kankati, Chaagaleya brahmanas.

=== (D) Samaveda ===
# '''जैमिनीय ब्राह्मण || Jaimineeya Brahmana''' or Talavakaara is the principal Brahmana of the Jaiminiya shakha, divided into three खण्ड || ''kanda''s (sections). One of the oldest Brahmanas, older than Tandya Mahabrahmana, but only fragments of manuscript have survived.
# '''तानद्य || Taandya''' (Proudha or {{IAST|Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa}}) is the principal Brahmana of both the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas. This is one of the oldest Brahmanas and includes twenty five books. It is notable for its important ancient legends and ''Vratyastomas''.
# '''छान्दोग्य || Chandogya''' (Mantra) Brahmana are the three primarily available brahmanas. Chandogya Brahmana is divided into ten प्रपथक || ''prapathaka''s (chapters). Its first two ''prapathaka''s (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana and each of them is divided into eight ''khanda''s (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].
Four Upabrahmanas or Anubrahmanas for Samaveda include - (1) Saamavidhana Brahmana (2) Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana (3) Vamsha Brahmana (4) Simhatopanishad brahmana

Four Saamaveda brahmanas that have been lost in time include Bhaallavi, Kaala, Rauruki, and Shaatyayana brahmanas.

=== (E) Atharvaveda ===
(1) Gopatha Bramana is the only available brahmana. Names of other brahmanas are not available for this Veda samhita.

Apart from these many other brahmanas are mentioned in important books such as Nirukta and in Bhashya books of Patanjali, Sayana among others.

== सम्वाद || Discussion ==
Are brahmanas vedas is a question that has been around for many centuries.

== References ==

# A. C. Banerjea, ''Studies in the Brāhmaṇas'', Motilal Banarsidass (1963)
# E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, ''Kauṣītaki-Brāhmaṇa'', Wiesbaden (1968, comm. 1976).
# Dr.Shashi Tiwari (Retd.), Sanskrit Department, Delhi University at http://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/
# Aarshavignana sarvasvamu, Dvitiya samputa, Page 4, 5
# A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature, Brahmana and Aranyaka works by Satya Shrava

Samhita (संहिता)

2017-09-12T08:52:27Z

P16232: /* Yajus Samhita */

Samhita (Sanskrit: सम्हिता, ''{{IAST|saṁhitā}}'') literally means "put together, joined" and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses". Samhita has been used as a synonym for Vedas and hence used in exchange for each other. '''Though many western scholars, not unanimously though, have dated the Vedas to several thousands of years ago, till date many scholars and followers of Sanatana Dharma believe in the agelessness and timelessness of these ancient texts.'''

The Samhitas are considered to be basic revealed texts. These are recited in chain like arrangements of words, with no break, no punctuation, and order not be disturbed by arbitrary human meddling. A collective study of Vedas and later text suggests that the compendium of ''Samhitas'' and associated Vedic texts were far larger than currently available. However, most have been lost at some point or over a period of Indian history.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The [[Vedas]] have been divided into four styles of texts:
# the Samhitas,
# the [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]], the [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] and the [[Upanishads]]. The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).The [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] and [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the ''Gyan''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.

Another learned author says: These are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.

''Samhita'' also refers to the most ancient layer of text in the [[Veda|Vedas]], consisting of [[Mantra|mantras]] and slokas (a group of mantras or verses).

== व्युत्पत्तिः || Etymology ==
''Samhita'' is a Sanskrit word from the roots, sam (सं) and hita (हित), which mean "correct, proper" and "wholesome, arranged" respectively. The combination word thus means "put together , joined, compose, arrangement, place together, union" and "combination of letters according to euphonic rules, any methodically arranged collection of texts or verses".

== Four Samhitas ==
The Samhitas form the first part of each of the Vedas. A Samhita is a collection of mantras, so the Samhitas are sometimes also referred to as the ‘mantras’. Most of the mantras were concerned with the nature and the deities. Generally, the mantras are addressed to the Gods and Goddesses.

The Samhitas are named after the Vedas they belong to. For example, the Samhita of the Rig Veda is called the Rig-Veda-Samhita or the Rig-Samhita. The Rig-Samhita contains the mantras known as ‘rks’, while those of Yajur veda are called 'yajus', Sama Veda mantras are called 'saman'. These mantras are structured metered verses in Rig veda while prose form is seen in Yajurveda mantras.

=== Rig Samhita ===
The Rigveda is the oldest, biggest of the four Vedas and the most highly valued work of the Hindus. This Samhita (Collection) is unique in its nature. The present form of this Samhita clearly indicates that the collection is not a single work, but consists of multiple elements, thus, intact through thousands of years are the seeds of India's religious and philosophical development. Various indications of language, style and ideas prove this point.

Different mantras of this Samhita were composed long before they were systematically arranged. Being a compilation of different stages, there is something which stamps the Rigveda with an individuality of its own. It is much more natural in character and form than other Samhitas.

''Rik,'' from the root ''rc'' means ‘to praise''’.'' Variously called as 'rk', 'richas', 'rig' or '''Rik''<nowiki/>' is the name given to those Mantras which are meant for the praise of the deities. Thus the collection (''Samhita'') of ''Riks'' is known as Rigveda-Samhita.
* Only one Shaka (school) of the Rigveda is available today called as '''Shaakala'''. The Purāṇa literature gives ample information about the existence of Śākhā-Saṁhitās. Deviations in text, order and number of ṛk mantras started giving rise to different Śākhā-Saṁhitās from the time of Ācārya Paila; Patañjali referring to twenty one Śākhā-Saṁhitās of the Ṛgveda (Ref 2) the Āśvalāyana-Saṁhitā being one of them.
* It contains about 10,552 Mantras (about 10, 170 rks according to some other scholars) and 1, 028 suktas.
* It is classified into ten books called ''Mandalas''.
* Each ''Mandala'' is divided into several sections called ''Anuvakas''.
* Each ''Anuvaka'' consists of a number of S''uktas'' (hymns).
* Each ''Sukta'' is made up of a number of Mantras (verses) called ''riks''.
* Every ''Rik'' has a ''Rishi (Mantra Drashta),'' a ''Devata (deity)'' and a ''Chandas (meter)''.
* Mantras are revealed to several rishis called Mantra Drashtas including some brahmavaadinis like Lopamudra and Vak Ambhrni.
* The Samhita of the Rigveda thus comprises of 10 ''Mandalas'', 85 ''Anuvakas'', 1028 ''Suktas'' and 10552 ''Mantras''. Usually ''Anuvaka'' is not mentioned for the reference of a Mantra of the Rigveda. For example RV 3.16.7 simply means the seventh Mantra of the sixteenth ''Sukta'' of the third ''Mandala'' of the Rigveda.
* It begins with a sukta to Agni and concludes with a sukta to the same deity. Agni sukta (01.01.01) by Rushi : Madhucchanda Visvamitra, Devata : Agni, Chandas: Gayatri goes as follows
<blockquote>"
''अग्निसूक्तम् in प्रथमं मण्डलम्।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''९ मधुच्छन्दा वैश्वामित्रः । अग्निः। गायत्री।'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निमी॑ळे पु॒रोहि॑तं य॒ज्ञस्य॑ दे॒वमृ॒त्विज॑म् । होता॑रं रत्न॒धात॑मम् ॥१''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निः पूर्वे॑भि॒र्ऋषि॑भि॒रीड्यो॒ नूत॑नैरु॒त । स दे॒वाँ एह व॑क्षति ॥२''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निना॑ र॒यिम॑श्नव॒त् पोष॑मे॒व दि॒वेदि॑वे । य॒शसं॑ वी॒रव॑त्तमम् ॥३''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अग्ने॒ यं य॒ज्ञम॑ध्व॒रं वि॒श्वत॑: परि॒भूरसि॑ । स इद् दे॒वेषु॑ गच्छति ॥४''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निर्होता॑ क॒विक्र॑तुः स॒त्यश्चि॒त्रश्र॑वस्तमः । दे॒वो दे॒वेभि॒रा ग॑मत् ॥५''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''यद॒ङ्ग दा॒शुषे॒ त्वमग्ने॑ भ॒द्रं क॑रि॒ष्यसि॑ । तवेत् तत् स॒त्यम॑ङ्गिरः ॥६''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''उप॑ त्वाग्ने दि॒वेदि॑वे॒ दोषा॑वस्तर्धि॒या व॒यम् । नमो॒ भर॑न्त॒ एम॑सि ॥७''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''राज॑न्तमध्व॒राणां॑ गो॒पामृ॒तस्य॒ दीदि॑विम् । वर्ध॑मानं॒ स्वे दमे॑ ॥८''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स न॑: पि॒तेव॑ सू॒नवे ऽग्ने॑ सूपाय॒नो भ॑व । सच॑स्वा नः स्व॒स्तये॑ ॥९''"</blockquote>As seen in the above example, the Vedic mantras are notated with lines above and below the letters which indicate the svara or tone of the particular letter in which it has to be uttered. The information about Vedic Language, the tones and accents used are explained in Siksha part of the [[Shad Vedaangas (षड् वेदाङ्ग)|Vedaangas]]. This division of the Rigveda is most popular and systematic. There is also the ashtaka system of dividing the contents of the Rigveda, but today that is uncommon among the students of the Veda.The value of the Rigveda today is not confined to India, for its well-preserved language and mythology have helped a better understanding of languages, literatures and cultures of the whole world.

The concluding sukta of the Rgveda (10.191) also has Agni as Devata and should be regarded as having a higher significance than the national anthem of any country: it is a prayer for amity among all nations, a true international anthem. Rushi : Samvanana Angirasa, Devata : Agni, Chandas: Anusthub and Tristubh<blockquote>"
''संगठन सूक्त''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''४ संवनन आङ्गिरसः। १ अग्निः,२-४ संज्ञानम्। अनुष्टुप्, ३ त्रिष्टुप्।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''संस॒मिद्यु॑वसे वृष॒न्नग्ने॒ विश्वा॑न्य॒र्य आ । इ॒ळस्प॒दे समि॑ध्यसे॒ स नो॒ वसू॒न्या भ॑र ॥१''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''सं ग॑च्छध्वं॒ सं व॑दध्वं॒ सं वो॒ मनां॑सि जानताम् । दे॒वा भा॒गं यथा॒ पूर्वे॑ संजाना॒ना उ॒पास॑ते ॥२''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स॒मा॒नो मन्त्र॒: समि॑तिः समा॒नी स॑मा॒नं मन॑: स॒ह चि॒त्तमे॑षाम् । स॒मा॒नं मन्त्र॑म॒भि म॑न्त्रये वः समा॒नेन॑ वो ह॒विषा॑ जुहोमि ॥३''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४''"</blockquote>Meaning : "May mankind be of one mind, " it goes. "May it have a common goal. May all hearts be united in love. And with the mind and the goal being one may all of us live in happiness".

Among the 1028 ''Suktas'' of the Rigveda Samhita some ''suktas'' are very popular and frequently referred by the readers of Vedas. Some of them are:

1. Purusha Sukta

2. Hiranya-garbha Sukta

3. Dhana-anna-dana Sukta

4. Aksha Sukta

5. [[नासदीय सूक्त|Nasadiya Sukta]]

6. Duhsvapna-nashna Sukta

7. Yama-yami-samvada Sukta

Besides this, there are ''Suktas'' offered to different deities, such as, Indra, Marut, Rudra, Varuna, Ushas, Surya, Bhumi, Soma, and Agni.

=== Yajus Samhita ===
In its character Yajurveda is quite different from the Rigveda & Samaveda Samhitas. It is principally in prose form. The word '<nowiki/>''Yajush''<nowiki/>' in the Yajurveda is explained variously. But one of its definitions says -<blockquote>"
'<nowiki/>''Gadyatmakam yajuh''<nowiki/>' A ‘''Yajuh''’ is that which is in prose form'. "</blockquote>Another definition – <blockquote>"
‘''Yajur Yajateh''’ "</blockquote>talks about its relation with the sacrifice (''Yajna'') because both the terms are derived from the root. '''Yaj'' '.
* The Yajurveda is a ritual Veda for it is essentially a guide-book for the Adhvaryu priest who had to do practically all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. His works vary from the selection of a plot of land for the sacrificial altar down to offering oblations to the sacred fires. Just as the Samaveda-Samhita is the song-book of the ''Udgata'' priest, so the Yajurveda-Samhitas are the mantra-books for the ''Adhvaryu'' priest. It is solely meant for the purposes of sacrificial rituals.
* The Yajurveda is also important for its presentation of philosophical doctrines. It preaches the concept of ''Prana'' and ''Manas'' also. Many times, it is quoted for depicting religious and social life of the Vedic people. It is also known for giving certain geographical data.
* The Yajurveda is two-fold- 1. The Shukla Yajurveda 2. The Krishna Yajurveda
* The Krishna Yajurveda is characterised by a mixture of mantra and brahmana whereas the Shukla Yajurveda maintains the clear separation of the two.
* The Shukla Yajurveda is related with the Aditya-school and the Krishna Yajurveda is related with the Brahma-school.
* Origin of Two Shakas: Rishi Vaishampayana taught the Yajurveda to Rishi Yajnavalkya and other pupils. Once Vaishampayana got angry with Yajyavalkya and asked him to give up what he had learnt. Then Yajyavalkya prayed to the Sun, who came to him in the form of a horse i.e. ''Vaji'') and preached him the Veda. Hence this Shukla Yajurveda was also named Vajasaneyi.
* Shukla Yajurveda has two samhitas : '''Maadhyandina and Kanva'''
* Krishna yajurveda has four Samhitas : '''मैत्रायणि || Maitrayani, कथा || Katha, कपिस्थल-कथा || Kapisthala-Katha, तैत्रिय || Taittiriya'''
* The Vajasaneyi-Samhita gives a vivid description of many important sacrifices such as - Darsha-purnamasa, Somayaga, Chaturmasya, Agnihotra, Vajapeya, Ashvamedha, Sarva-medha, Brahma-yajna, Pitrimedha, Sautramani, and so on. For a general idea the contents can be divided into three sections. The first section comprises the ''Darshapurnamasa'', the second section deals with the ''Somayaga'' and the third section comprises the ''Agnicayanas''. The last section of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita contains the popular Ishavasya-Upanishad.

=== Sama samhita ===
The SamaSamhita contains mantras in the form of songs meant for liturgy or public worship. The Samaveda is shortest of all the four Vedas. It is closely connected with the Rigveda. It is important to note that the Samhita of the Samaveda is an independent collection (Samhita), yet it has taken many verses, a large number indeed, from the Samhita of Rigveda. These verses are chiefly derived from the eighth and the ninth Mandalas of the Rigveda.
* The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.
* The Samaveda is compiled exclusively for ritual application, for its verses are all meant to be chanted at the ceremonies of the Soma-sacrifice and procedures derived from it. The Samaveda is, therefore, specially intended for the ''Udagatr'' priest.
* The Samaveda samhita comprises two major parts. The first part include four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक). The Archika is also separated in two. - the Purvarcika, and the Uttararcika.
* Its stanzas assume their proper character of musical ''samans'' or chants only in the various song-books called ''Ganas''. According to the Jaiminiya Sutra - 'Melody is called Saman.'
* Saama Gana or singing of hymns as per the rules of Sama Veda is said to be the basis and source of the seven svaras or notes fundamental to the Indian music systems.
* According to the ancient tradition, told by Patanjali, the Samaveda had 1000 ''Shakhas''. But at present there are only three Shakas. These are – '''(1) Kauthuma, (2) Jaiminiya, (3)Ranayaniya.'''
* Famous Chandogya Upanishad belongs to this veda.
Traditional the Vedas are spoken as''<nowiki/>'Trayi''<nowiki/>', because thay are composed of three kinds in mantras- Rcs or verses, Yajus or prose, Saman or chants.

Among the four Vedas, the Samaveda is regarded as the foremost. In the Bhagavadgata, where Lord Krishna has declared "Among the Vedas I am Samaveda"-''Vedanama Samavedosmi'' (Gita, 10.22). Here Indra, Agni and Soma deities are mainly invoked and praised but most of the time these prayers seem to be the invocations for the Supreme Being. In the spiritual sense Soma represents All-pervading, Glorious Lord and Brahman, who is attainable only through devotion and musical chanting.

Thus major theme of the Samaveda can be regarded as worship and devotion (''Upasana'').

=== Atharva Samhita ===
The Atharva-Samhita contains mantras meant for routine rites and rituals. ''Atharvan'' denotes directions and mantras especially in connection to ward off evil and hardship and also contains philosophical thoughts. '''Atharvan''<nowiki/>' originally means 'priest' and the Mantras in the Atharvaveda-Samhita were brought to light by Rishi Atharva.
* According to Patanjali, Atharvaveda had nine Shakhas, but the Samhita of the Atharvaveda is today available only in two rescensions - '''the Shaunaka and the Paippalada'''.
* It is the Shaunaka-Samhita that is frequently meant when the Atharvaveda is mentioned in ancient and modern literature. It is a collection of 730 hymns containing 5987 Mantras, divided into 20 books (''Kandas''). Some 1200 verses are derived from the Rigveda. About one sixth of the text of the Atharvaveda including two entire books (15 and 16) is written in prose, similar in style and language to the Brahmanas, the rest of the text is in poetic verses.
* The Atharvaveda is the oldest literary monument of Indian medicine. It is believed to be the origin of Ayurveda, the Indian science of medicine.
* There are a series of Mantras related to cure various physical and mental diseases. Another class of hymns includes prayers for protection from the bite of snakes or injurious insects. We find mention and application of medicines and medicinal herbs. This feature distinguishes the Atharvaveda from the rest of the Vedas.
* It contains numerous Mantras, which according to their subject-matter, can be broadly divided into three categories: 1. Related to the cure of diseases and destruction of adverse forces. 2. Related to establish peace, protection, health, wealth, friendship and long life. 3. Related to the nature of Supreme Reality, time, death and immortality.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati made extraordinary efforts to bring out the significance of the mantras of the Vedas. Shri Aurobindo also challenged the Western philosophers and opined that the mantras are found to express esoteric truths which the Westerners can not grasp. He strove hard to elucidate the cryptic meanings of the Vedic words and the hymns.

== Famous Examples ==

=== Rig veda ===
The [[Gayatri mantra]] is among the famous Hindu mantras. It is found in Rig Veda Samhita.
:: ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात् (Rig Veda 3.62.10)
:: ''Oṁ Bhūr Bhuva~Swah', Tat savitur varenyam, Bhargo devasya dhīmahi, Dhiyo yo nah prachodayāt (Rig Veda 3.62.10)''
:: Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine Light (Sun). May he inspire our thoughts, stimulate our understandings.

== References ==
# Narayanacharya, K S. (2006). ''Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad''. Mysore : Kautilya Institute of National Studies.
# Bhattacharya, A. (2006). ''Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology.'' United States : iUniverse.
# http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm
# [http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda/rv01-001.pdf ''Rigveda Samhita, First Mandala (in Sanskrit).'']
# Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi MahaSwamiji. (). ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap27.htm Hindu Dharma, Part 5 ,Chapter 27].'' Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
# ''[http://ignca.nic.in/vedic_portal_rigveda.htm Rigveda Samhita,Overview.]''

Samhita (संहिता)

2017-09-12T08:51:13Z

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Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)

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It is said that Bhagavan Vishnu incarnated as Maharshi Veda Vyasa in Dvapara yuga and divided the Vedas. Maharshi Vyasa's brought about uniformity in the religious observances by performing rites and rituals, religious ceremonies, sacrifices and vratas (vows) without any flaw. As Vedas have different aspects of understanding to them, various types of expositions of Vedas came into existence and each became a subject to be learnt before understanding the Vedas. Maharshi Yaska, who gave Nirukta to the world, also expounded on the basis of legends and ancient lore.

Manu, the Law giver of ancient Bharatavarsha, laid down certain instructions as to how the teaching of Vedas should be conducted.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
वेदाङ्ग || Vedaangas help us construct, chant and understand Veda mantras and श्लोक || slokas. These are called अङ्ग || Angas (appendices) of Vedas.<blockquote>"शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदंगानि षडेव तु ॥"</blockquote>According to the above sloka Vedaangas are six in number namely शिक्षा ॥ Siksa, कल्प || Kalpa,व्याकरन || Vyakarana, निरुक्तम् || Niruktam, चण्ड || Chandas, and ज्योतिषं || Jyotisham.

== शिक्षा ॥ Siksha ==

शिक्षा ॥ Siksha deals mainly with स्वरज्ञानम् ॥ swaragnanam (phonetics) and it is the science disciplining the efforts of ear, nose and vocal cords to utter the accurate sound as defined by Vedic mantras. Siksha deals with the origin of sound and teaches one about the production of शुध्दोच्चारणम् ॥ shuddhoccharanam (accurate sound) with ease. In Vedic literature accurate pronunciation of sound (vowels and consonants) is of great importance else the meaning is completely altered, hence Vedas have '''स्वरप्राधान्यम् ॥ swarapraadhanyam'''.

The Siksha attached to तैत्रिय उपनिषद् || Taittriyopanishad extends the applicability as follows :

''"अथ शिक्षां व्याख्यास्यामः, वर्णः, स्वरः, मात्रा, बलम्, साम, सन्तान, इत्युक्तः शिक्षाध्याः"'' - ''"Let us comment about Siksha. Siksha study involves Varna, Swara, Maatra, Balam, Saama, Santana".'' Where

# '''Varna''' ॥ वर्णः अकारादिः - Varnas are the letters including Vowels and Consonants
# '''Swara''' ॥ स्वरस्तु उदात्तादिः - Swaras or Accents are of three kinds उदात्त || udatta (acute accent), आनुदात्त || aanudatta (accentless), स्वरित || swarit (normal accent).
# '''Maatra''' ॥ मात्रा ह्रस्वादिकाः - Prosodically or metrically short (ह्रस्वा) long (दीर्घ) prolated (प्लुतः)
# '''Balam''' ॥ बलम् उच्चारणस्थानं ताल्वादिकम् - Part of body from where sound is produced
# '''Saama''' ॥ साम निषादादिः - 7 Musical notes enumerated as 1. निषाद || nisada; 2. रिसभ || ṛiṣabha 3. गान्धार || gandhara 4. सद्ज || ṣaḍja 5. मध्यम || madhyama 6. धैवता || dhaivata 7. पञ्चम || pancama
# '''Santana''' ॥ सन्तानो विकर्षणादिः

Classical Sanskrit literature differs from Vedic literature, as it is not highly regulated by the उच्चारणम् ॥ uccharanam (utterance). Hence शिक्षा ॥ '''Siksha''' is of vital importance as an ancillary for vedas, because अशुध्दोच्चारणम् ॥ ashuddhoccharanam (wrongly uttered) mantras bring about a meaning change which can cause great harm to the यजमणि || yajamani (the performer of the yagna).

An example of such wrong utterance : <blockquote>"मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्या प्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह ।"</blockquote><blockquote>"स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोपराधात् ॥"</blockquote>If a mantra is devoid of a वर्ण || varna or letter, or has wrongly utterances or स्वर || swaras, then it does not the give the meaning it is intended to and produces a false meaning. This incorrectly and improperly uttered mantra becomes a वाक्वज्र || vakvajra (word weapon) and is capable of destroying the यजमणि || yajamani (performer of the yagna). Example is the famous story of Indra's enemy, Vrittrasura whose origin was due to स्वरापराध ॥ swarapradha (wrong swara utterance) of a mantra. <blockquote>"'''वृत्रासुर जननम् || Vrittrasura Jananam''' : त्वष्टा॥ Tvastha angered by Indra's killing of his son विश्वरूप || Vishwaroopa, initiates an आभिचारिकं यागं || aabhaicharikam yagam (a yagam performed to cause harm to an intended person) to procure a son to kill Indra. The ऋत्विज || ritvijas were to utter the mantra "इन्द्रशत्रुर्वर्धस्व" with अन्त उदात्तः ॥ Anta Udaatta or Udaatta swara in the end of the mantra (to mean Prosper Oh ! Enemy of Indra) instead they used the आद्य उदात्तः ॥ Aadya Udaatta swara in the beginning of the mantra (meaning Oh! Indra, one who has enemies, Prosper). So instead of asking for the rise and prosperity of a son to take revenge on Indra, the ऋत्विज || ritvijas asked for the prosperity and glory of Indra who destroyed असुर || Asuras. Thus वृत्रासुर '''||''' Vrittrasura the son of त्वष्टा ॥ Tvastha was born, an enemy of Indra, but eventually Indra was rewarded with glory in killing वृत्रासुर '''||''' Vrittrasura."</blockquote>Siksha literature is very widely available based on the different शाखा || shaka (divisions) of different vedas. They are पाणिनीयशिक्षा || Panineeya Siksha व्यासशिक्षा || Vyasasiksha, भारद्वाजशिक्षा || Bharadwaaja siksha, याज्ञवलक्यशिक्षा || Yaagnvalkya Siksha, पराशरशिक्षा || Paarasharee siksha, वासिष्टीशिक्षा || Vaasishtee siksha, कात्यायनीशिक्षा || Kaatyayanee siksha, माध्यन्दिनीशिक्षा || Maadhyandinee siksha, केशवीशिक्षा || Keshavee siksha, अमोघानन्दिनीशिक्षा || Amoghaanandinee siksha, माण्डव्यशिक्षा || Maandavya siksha, मल्लशर्मशिक्षा || Mallasharma siksha, स्वराकुशशिक्षा || Svaraakusha siksha, षोडशशिक्षा || Shodasha slokee siksha, नारदीयशिक्षा || Naaradeeya siksha, माण्डुकीयशिक्षा || Mandukeeya siksha, स्वरभक्तिलक्षणशिक्षा || Svarabhaktilaskhana siksha, अवसाननिर्णयशिक्षा || Avasaananirnaya siksha, वर्णरत्न प्रदीपिका शिक्षा || Varnaratna pradeepikaa siksha among many others.

== कल्पः ॥ Kalpa ==
The origin of कल्पः ॥ Kalpa was for the organization of all the extensive rituals described in Vedas (वैदिक कर्मकाण्ड || Vaidika Karmakaanda).

As given by Vishnumitra

"कल्पो वेदविहितानां कर्मणामानुपूर्व्येण कल्पनाशास्त्रम्" - "Kalpa sastra is a guideline for all the actions laid down in Veda (such as yagnas and yaagas)"

There are 4 types of Kalpa sutras

# '''श्रौत सूत्र || Shrouta sutras''' - explain the दर्शपोउर्नमास यज्ञ || Darshapournamaasa Yagas and others as defined by श्रुति || Shruti
# '''धर्म सूत्र || Dharma sutras''' - extensively gives the धार्मिक || dharmika rules for general people and the rulers
# '''गृह्य सूत्र || Grhya sutras''' - explains the यज्ञ || yaagas to be followed by the ब्राह्मण || brahmana, क्षत्रिय || kshatriya and वैश्य || vaishyas
# '''सुल्ब सूत्र || Sulba sutras''' - शास्त्र || Shastra for measurements, includes the रेखागणितं || rekhaganitam (geometrical principles) laid down for vedic constructions.

'''श्रौत सूत्र ||''' '''Shrouta Sutras''' vividly describe the procedures for दर्शपोउर्नमास यज्ञ || Darshapournamaasa yagna and other यज्ञ || yagnas such as अग्निहोत्रं || Agnihotram, पशुययज्ञ || Pashuyagam, and सोमयज्ञ् || Somayagam among others as set forth in Shruti literature. Thus, it can be said that in श्रौत सूत्र || Shrouta Sutras the explanations given in different वैदिक ब्राह्मण || Vaidika Braahamanas regarding श्रौताग्नि यज्ञ || Shroutagni yagaas are dealt with in an orderly manner.

Of the available Shrouta sutras the important ones are - अश्वलयन || Ashvalayana, शाखायन || Shaakhayana , मानव || Maanava , बौधायन || Boudhayana, आपस्तम्भ || Aapasthamba, हिरन्यकेषि || Hiranyakeshi, जैमिनीय || Jaimineeya, कात्यायन || Kaatyayana, वैतान || Vaitaana, लात्यायन || Laatyayana, द्राह्यान || Draahyaana श्रौत सूत्र || Shrouta sutras.

'''धर्म सूत्र ||''' '''Dharma Sutras''' expound the rules of Dharma and the actions (activities) to be performed by a person in general as well as the king or the ruler. A complete set of rules to be followed by the different people of different occupations and for those in the four आश्रम || ashramaas (ब्रह्मचार्य || brahmacharya, गृहस्थ || grihastha, वानप्रस्थ || vaanaprastha and सन्यास || sanyas) are described in these sutras. Thus it can be said that the topics related to the spiritual world, this material world, society and social activities, and all righteous activities are described in a holistic manner. Available important Dharma sutras include वासिष्ट || Vasishta, गौतम || Goutama, बौधायन || Boudhayana, आपस्तम्भ || Aapasthamba, मानव || Maanava धर्म सूत्र || Dharma sutras.

'''गृह्य सूत्र ||''' '''Grhya Sutras''' extensively discuss the यज्ञ || yagas to be performed by the ब्राह्मण || brahmana, क्षत्रिय || kshatriya and वैश्य || vaishya people. Most importantly the षोडस संस्कार || Shodasa samskaras (from गर्भदानं || Garbhaadhanam to अन्त्येष्टि || Antyeshti) that are performed for a person from birth till death are expounded vividly in these sutras. Thus, how a ग्र्हस्थ || grhasta should lead his life and the procedure in which he has to conduct different धार्मिक || dharmic activities are completely described here. The seven kinds of गृह्य यज्ञ || Grhya yagnas to be performed are:
# पितृ यज्ञ || Pitru Yagnam
# पार्वण यज्ञ || Paarvana Yagnam
# अष्टक यज्ञ || Astakaa Yagnam
# श्रावणी यज्ञ || Shraavani yagnam
# आष्वेयुजी यज्ञ || Aashweyujee yagnam
# आग्रहायणी यज्ञ || aagrahaayanee Yagnam
# चैत्रॆय यज्ञ || Chaitreeya Yagnam
Apart from these seven, there are पञ्चयज्ञ || Panchayagnas (five Yagnas) namely
# देव || Deva,
# भूत || Bhuta,
# पितृ || Pitru,
# ब्रह्म || Brahma
# मनुष्य यज्ञ || Manushya yagnas.

Available important Grhya sutras include अश्वलयन || Ashvalayana , शाखयन || Shaakhayana , मानव || Maanava , बौधायन || Boudhayana, आपस्तम्भ || Aapasthamba गृह्य सूत्र || Grhya sutras.

'''सुल्ब सूत्र ||''' '''Sulba Sutras''' explain the different systems of measurements. Aspects of measurements of various वेदेनिर्मान विधि || vedenirmanavidhi (altars and the procedure to construct them) Example, होम शाला || homa shala, यज्ञ शाला || yagashala are discussed. Thus, वैदिक कर्मकाण्ड || Vaidika Karmakaanda is the topic for सुल्ब सूत्र || Sulbasutras, wherein geometry or the रेखागनितं || Rekhaganitam is applied. Only those Sulbasutras associated with यजुरवेद || Yajurveda are available extensively indicating that यजुरवेद || Yajurveda is the main base for कर्मकाण्ड || karmakaanda. कात्यायन || Kaatyayana, मानव || Maanava , बौधायन || Boudhayana, आपस्तम्भ || Aapasthamba, मैत्रेयी || Maitreyi, वारह || Vaaraha, वाधुला सुलब सूत्र || Vaadhula sulba sutras are the important ones in this category.

== व्याकरणम् ॥ Vyakarana ==
Vyakaranam is described as the वेद पुरुष || Veda purusha's face.

व्याक्रियन्ते शब्दाः अनेन इति व्याकरणम् ।

Is the व्युत्पत्ति अर्धम || vyutpatti ardham or the subjective definition of word. This shastra only deliberates on the शुद्ध्यशुद्ध्योः || shuddhyashuddhyo (accurate and inaccurate) usages of words in संस्कृत वाङ्ग्मय || Samskrita vaangmaya or literature. It is grammar of संस्कृत श्लोक || samskrita slokas and it deals with the formation of words, different forms of the words and their combination, usage and semantic nuances. Although, ऋगवेद || Rigvedic references to grammar are available, it is only the तैत्रिय संहिता || Taittiriya samhita that outlines the story of origin of grammar. In महर्षि यस्क || Maharshi Yaska's निरुक्त || Nirukta, different technical or conventional terms related to grammar are available in abundance.

It was महर्षि पाणिनि || Maharshi Panini who has given '''अष्टध्यायी || Ashthadhyayi''' the most profound and brilliant treatise on grammar to the intellectual world, wherein he describes all the previous grammarians belonging to a time period before him. Also called शब्दानुशासनम् || Shabdaanusashanam it was the अष्टध्ययि || Asthadhyayi which brought about the regularization of grammatical rules of the vedic usages also.

व्याकरणम् ॥ Vyakarana is divided into प्राचीन व्याकरणम् || Praacheena vyakaranam and नव्य व्याकरणम् || navya vyakaranam. Later age grammarians recognize the eight व्याकरण शास्त्र प्रवर्तक || vyakarana shastra pravartakas as follows

इन्द्रश्चन्द्रः काशकृत्स्नापिशाली शाकटायनः ।

पाणिन्यमरजैनेन्द्राः जयन्त्यष्टौ च शाब्दिकाः ॥

इन्द्र || Indra, चन्द्र || Chandra, काश || Kaasha, कृत्स्नपिशली || kritsnapishali, शकटयन || shakatayana, पाणिनि || panini, अरजैनेन्द्र || arajainendra, जयन्त || jayanta are the eight preachers of शब्द || shabda (word) or grammar.

== निरुक्तम् ॥ Nirukta ==
महर्षि यस्क || Maharshi Yaska's निरुक्तम् || Nirukta is another treasure that has been produced in भारतवर्ष || Bharatavarsha and given to the world. it is an excellent treatise that deals with etymology or the objective definition of words. निरुक्तम् || Nirukta is written in prose form while all other shastras are built in the सूत्र || sutra format. सायनाचार्य || Saayanaacharya while giving the preface of ऋग्वेद भाष्यं || Rigveda Bhasyam speaks thus about निरुक्तम् || Niruktam :

"अथावबोधे निरपेक्षतया पदजातं यत्रोक्तं तन्निरुक्तम्" ||

When other वेदाङ्ग || Vedangas extol the material aspects or तत्व || tattvas of Vedas, निरुक्तम् || nirukta propounds the supernatural or the uncommon aspects or तत्व || tattvas of the Vedas.

यस्काचार्य || Yaskaacharya has accepted 4 जाति || Jaatis (race) types of भेदचतुस्तयं || Bhedachatustayam (words) :

# '''नाम जाति || Naama Jaati :''' सत्व प्रधानं || Satva pradhaanam or Significance attributed to existence of a thing as in Ghata pot, Money Dhanam
# '''आख्यत जाति || Aakhyata Jaati :''' भाव प्रधानं || Bhaava pradhaanam or Significance attributed to action or kriya as in Read patathi, Do karoti
# '''उपसर्ग जाति || Upasarga Jaati :''' नानाविधा विशेष अर्थ प्रधानं || Naanavidha visesha artha pradhaanam, Significance attributed to a special meaning of one word as in आहार || Aahara, सम्हार || samhaara, विहार || vihaara
# '''निपात जाति || Nipaata Jaati :''' उपमार्थे पद पुराणार्थं || Upamaarthe pada puranaartham, Significance of comparision and for appropriate chandas as in eva, na, cha

Without the existence of निरुक्त || Niruktam understanding the Vedic terminology is extremely difficult. Yaskaacharya in his preface to Niruktam says <blockquote>"
"समाम्नायः समाम्नातः स व्याख्यातव्यः""</blockquote><blockquote>"
"इदमन्तरेण मन्त्रेष्वर्थप्रत्ययो न विद्यते इति" - "Through this means that without this the meaning of mantras cannot be obtained"."</blockquote>Thus it can be inferred that निरुक्तम् || Niruktam determines the meanings of various वॆदिक मंत्र || vedic mantras and comments on them. Knowledge about the various divine beings is given by Nirukta, hence it's use in various यज्ञ कर्म || yagna karmas is indispensable. Thus only निरुक्तम् || Nirukta experts can understand the different characteristics or identifying marks of various vedic Gods.

'''Difference between Vyakarana and Nirukta''' : While व्याकरणम् ॥ Vyakarana discusses the origin of the word, निरुक्तम् || Niruktam determines the meaning, thus it completes the study of vyakarana. While vyakaranam is लक्षण प्रधानं || lakshana pradhanam or defines the attributes of a word, Nirukta is अर्थ प्रधानं || artha pradhanam (independently explains the meaning). With out निरुक्तम् || Niruktam splitting of the word is not possible, while grammar talks about rules for splitting the word, Nirukta defines how to split a word.

'''Difference between Nighantu and Nirukta''' : A Dictionary or निघन्टुः || Nighantu is a compilation of usages of Vedic literature whereas निरुक्तम् || Nirukta extensively discusses the different Vedic words and their applications. Derivation of meaning of vedic terms is achieved in Nirukta. A dictionary consists of पञ्चद्याय || Panchadhyayas (5 components) whereas Nirukta deals with द्वदशाद्याय || Dvadashaadhyayas (12 components).

== छन्दः ॥ Chandas ==
Vedas are bound in छन्दः || chandas or in a metre. Since vedas are highly dependent on the sound or the way they are uttered, chandas very important for their accurate utterance. It is the science for determination of metrical forms and qualities of mantras.

The ऋग्वेद || rigveda and सामवेद || samaveda mantras are totally constructed with chandas. यजुर्वेद || Yajurveda has both prose and श्लोक || sloka forms of mantras, and the slokas are all built with appropriate chandas.

वैदिक छन्दः || Vaidikachandas is different from chandas and meters of poems in classical sanskrit. Vaidikachandas is अक्षर प्रधानं || Akshara pradhanam or the number of letters is significant to understand the छन्दः || chandas and not the मात्रा || maatras. The general सूत्र || sutras as applicable to classical sanskrit is not applicable to वैदिक छन्दः || Vaidikachandas.

Pingalacharyas चन्दःसुत्रं ||"Chandahsutram" is a work which gives information about vaidikachandas. The number of letters range from 1 to 104. Based on the number of letters each chandas has a different name.
* गायत्री || Gayatri (24 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* अनुस्तुप् || Anustup (32 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* त्रिस्तुप् || Tristup (44 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* जगति || Jagati (48 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* अस्थि || Asthi (64 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* प्रकृति || Prakriti (84 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* विकृति || Vikruti (92 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* अभिकृति || Abhikruti (100 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
* उत्कृति || Utkruti (104 अक्षराणि || aksharani)
are among a few as examples.

== ज्योतिषम् ॥ Jyotisham ==
It is study of the Universe,i.e.,astrology or astronomy to determine the configuration and position of stars and planets etc., in order to fix favorable or propitious times for performing यज्ञ || Yagas or Hindu rituals.

ज्योतिष शस्त्रम् || Jyotishshastram is like the eye to the वेद पुरुषः || veda purusha. Without the knowledge of this शस्त्र || shastra, काल || kala (time) cannot be determined, for example - Auspiciousness of the Day, night, fortnight, month, season, and year cannot be determined. Auspicious time for the performance of यज्ञ || yagnas and for travel the time is determined by the knowledge of this shastra. वैदिक संहिता || Vaidika samhitas explicitly deal with the काल || kala (time). as in जीवेम शरदम् शतम् || jeevema sharadam shatam.

व्याकरणम् ॥ Vyakarana and निरुक्तम् || Nirukta are unique to each Veda. Whereas शिक्षा || Siksha, छन्दः || Chandas, कल्प || Kalpa and ज्योतिष || Jyotisa are common for all Vedas.

Commentaries by मेधातिति || Medhatiti, गोविन्दराज || Govindaraja, कल्लुकभट्ट || Kallukabhatta are available to read मनुस्मृति || Manu Smriti.

== References ==
Puranic Encyclopedia

Dharma and Women’s Rights

2017-09-11T13:31:30Z

P16232: /* Why and how did March 8th come to be celebrated as International Women’s Day? */

Ancient Bharatiya intellectual seers with due regard to the special attributes of womanhood, considered that women require special protection all through their life for it is indisputable that women are the most vulnerable to attack by men with evil propensities. It is a matter of common knowledge that offences against women by men have been a problem throughout human history and consequently, it is the woman who suffers irreparable physical, mental and socio-economic damage. In particular, sexual assault is the most heinous crime which ruins the whole life of a woman.

Hence, ancient Bharatiya intellectuals considered that the right to protection is important especially of women who were seen in Vedic times as ‘sustainers of our society’.

== Right to Protection ==
Undoubtedly, the right to equality and all other human rights are applicable to men and women, equally. However, protection for women being recognized by ancient seers as matter of great importance, they proclaimed that the best method to enforce Right to Protection of women is by ingraining the ideal of ‘Respect for womanhood’ in every individual and in particular in men through spiritual education right from inception and at all levels of education. Thus, right to protection of women was a cherished value of life from time immemorial in [[Bharatavarsha]]. The much maligned [[Manu]] in modern, “secular India has this to say about women’s rights in Vedic Bharat

यत्र नार्यास्तु पूज्यन्ते, रमन्ते तत्र देवताः ।

यत्रैतास्तु न पूज्यन्ते सर्वास्तत्राफलाः क्रियाः ।। (Manusmriti 3.56)

Where the woman is worshiped, there the celestial gods take delight while where they are not respected all activities are unfruitful.

प्रजनार्थं महाभागाः पूजार्हा गृहदीप्तयः ।

स्त्रियः श्रियश्च गेहेषु न विशेषोऽस्ति कश्चन ।। (Manusmriti 9.26)

A woman is respected for her ability to procreate, and are the shining lamps of the house. They are the very treasure of the family.

Other ancient texts also extoll the necessity of women's rights

पूज्यनीया महाभागाः पुण्यश्च गृहदीप्तयः ।

स्त्रियः श्रियः गृहस्योक्तास्तस्माद् रक्ष्या विशेषतः ।। (Viduraneeti 6.11)

Women are respectable, fortunate, pure, as a shining light of the house, and bring dignity to family. Hence they need to be protected specially.

मातृवत्परदारेषु यः परद्रव्येषु लोष्टवत् ।

आत्मवत्सर्वभूतेषु यः पश्यति स पण्डितः ।। (Hitopadesa 14)

“A person who regards, every woman other than his wife as equal to his own mother, who regards wealth which belongs to another as equal to a clod of earth and who regards every other individual, as his own self, is an educated man in the real sense of the term.

पुत्राधिकाश्च दौहित्रा भागिनेयाश्च भ्रातरः ।

कन्याधिकाः पालनीया भ्रातृभार्य्यास्नुषास्वसा ।। (Shukraneeti 3.166)

Daughter’s sons, sister’s sons and brothers are to be treated more importantly than own sons. Brother’s wives, daughter-in-laws of the house and sisters are to be given more importance than own daughter in a family. This shloka emphasizes the importance of different roles of woman in a family and the lofty position she is to be given.

These civilizational values of Bharat that have been distorted and misinterpreted by self-styled Indologists of the East India Company are the most valuable contribution to humanity. Apart from creating the value of respect for womanhood there have been special provisions for protecting several human rights of women. Rules of Dharma created an obligation on the part of the male members of a family to afford protection to every woman at every age and stage of life (Manusmriti 9.3). Further under Rajadharma it was the duty of the State to provide protection to women.

पिता रक्षति कौमरे भर्ता रक्षति यौवने ।

रक्षन्ति स्थविरे पुत्रा न स्त्री स्वातन्त्रयमर्हति ।। (Manusmriti 9.3)

“Father protects the girl during her childhood, the husband protects her after marriage and her sons protect her in old age. At no stage a woman should be left free. (without protection)

== Indology Myths to ‘Break India’ ==
The East India Company Indologists who strived for Bharat’s economic destruction, the destruction of its social fabric have used Manu’s verse on protection of women at every stage of her life to say that Vedas stifle women’s freedom as they order women to remain enslaved to men throughout their lives. The verses of Manusmriti that endorse the significance of women’s pivotal role in societal well-being, honoring women and the responsibility of society to ensure their well-being (Ch. 3 Verses 56, 57, 58, 62 and 114) have been totally ignored. An intelligent and honest reader of the verse understands very clear its import, i.e. to declare the responsibility of men (the father, husband and sons) to maintain and protect the daughter, wife and mother respectively. clearly, as stated by Western historians and their Indian disciples, it is not a directive to subjugate or dominate women, which interestingly was and continues to be the way of the Anglo-Saxons & Arab colonizers. To interpret the verse to the effect that it is a directive to treat a woman as a slave and that she should be deprived of freedom throughout her life is not only erroneous but should be put down as cultural genocide.

=== Purport of the Verse ===
Kerry Brown, in her book “The Essential Teachings of Hinduism (Arrow Books, London, 1990) ascertains the real meaning of the controversial verse in Manusmriti thus:

''“In Hinduism, a woman is looked after not because she is inferior or incapable but, on the contrary, because she is treasured. She is the pride and power of the society. '''Just as the crown jewels should not be left unguarded, neither should a woman be left unprotected.''' No extra burden of earning a living should be placed on women who already bear huge responsibilities in society; childbirth, child-care, domestic well-being and spiritual growth. She is the transmitter of culture to her children.''

== Laws to Ensure Right to Protection of Women ==
It is indisputable that by nature womanhood is tender and requires protection. Many activities of the day-to-day life put a woman or girl into situations where her security is threatened.

Supreme Court of India in the case of Vishaka vs State of Rajasthan, 1997 (6) SCC241, issued a directive to the Government and the employers to protect working women from sexual harassment in the workplace.

International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) has laid down the general recommendations in Article 11, in the context of “Violence and equality in employment.

In view of the modern civilization where many women work outside the home, laws which define the obligation of the employer to provide protection to working women against harassment have to be clearly laid in place. If such obligation were to be added to the aforesaid verse of Manusmriti, it would read as follows:

पिता रक्षति कौमरे भर्ता रक्षति यौवने ।

रक्षन्ति स्थविरे पुत्रा कार्यक्षेत्रे च स्वामिनः ।।

It is the obligation of:

The father to protect the girl till marriage; the husband to protect his wife after marriage;

the son to protect his mother during old age; the employer to protect women at work place

This is the real spirit of the verse and it is not a directive to treat women as slaves.

== Special Provisions of Ancient Laws: ==
# Women’s Property: The provision of ancient Indian law regarding perfecting title to an immovable property by adverse possession was made inapplicable in respect of property belonging to women, state and temple. न भोगं कल्पयेत्स्त्रीषु देवराजधनेषु च ।The spirit of or object behind modern laws ensuring women’s rights have been enshrined in our Vedas as is seen in the verse of Manusmriti- women require protection against the onslaughts of males with evil propensities.
# Death sentence for rape of women in custody : संरुध्दस्य वा तत्रैव घातः । तदेवाध्यक्षेण गृहीतायामार्यायां विद्यात् ।। “Capital sentence should be imposed for offence of rape committed against a woman arrested by an officer of the State. (Kautilya Arthasastra, p. 256)
# बलाच्चेत्पहृता कन्या मन्त्रैर्यदि न संस्कृता । अन्यस्मै विधिवद्देया यथा कन्या तथैव सा ।। “ If a damsel has been abducted and not given in marriage in accordance with lase, she may lawfully be given to another man. She is as chaste as a maiden. (Vasishta, p. 72-73, Dharmakosha, p. 1021) This specific provision “she is as chaste as a maiden is most humane for women who are the unfortunate victims of sexual assault, thus restoring their social status in the society.

== Why and how did March 8th come to be celebrated as International Women’s Day? ==
'''Women’s day is celebrated with much gusto on March 8th every year in different parts of the world. The trend has caught on in India too since the last decade or two. It was on this date March 8th 1885, that Susan Anthony of USA, addressed the House of Representatives in USA for equal rights for women, to vote in the US elections. Until then, the women in USA did not have the right to vote in elections. This day, thus represents a fight for equality from a position of inequality. While this is a red letter day for the march of women in USA, there have been many brave women in other parts of the world too who have fought the prevailing social conditions to bring about equality for women.'''

'''Such a secondary position for women in society comes from the fundamental thought and premise that, “behind every successful man there is a woman. This phrase by its implication means that the woman is always behind a man, supporting him, pushing him forward and allowing him to set the pace.'''

== Ardhangini ==
In contrast to this phrase, which denotes a secondary role for women, the Indian thought, expressed the relationship between man and woman through the word Ardhangini. Ardha means half or equal and angini comes from anga meaning part (of body). Thus women were considered literally as one who has an equal part or role in an effort and life of grihastha.

== Sama vs Saha ==
This equality was not limited by the word “equal but went beyond that into the realms of bringing out the best of the innate capability of each gender. In a couple, the woman is even today known as Sahadharmacharini, meaning one who is not just equal but complementary in carrying out their role of Dharma. There is a subtle essence conveyed in the usage of the words here. The word used for equal is Sama, whereas in the relationship between husband and wife it has been referred to as Saha, implying together, complement. This is because, the ancients, both the women and the men realised that by nature and by biological capacity, each gender has an innate strength and hence role to play in the sustenance of Nature and mankind, called Dharma. In this role play, one gender is not superior or inferior to another, causing the other gender to fight or claim for equality. Each gender is complementary to the other, based on their natural capability, capacity and role.

The Indian thought went one step further and also depicted the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, in a human form of a man and woman complementing each other in the form of Ardhanari, ie. half woman. This would reemphasize and reiterate to common man on a daily basis the essence of the role of the man and woman as they hold the society together. This knowledge of this land through the ages, kept reinforcing the focus on saha, to be complementary and not just sama, equal.

== The Fertility Chain ==
The description of feminity tends to focus on the sexuality of women today. Womanhood, the qualities of women, the capabilities of women, the role of a women is a lot more that sexuality. Women are regarded as the epitome of fertility. This is not just for the purpose of child bearing, but has more practical applications. In a predominantly agrarian civilization, the four aspects that control the fertility chain were in the control of women. These four were the lands, the water resources, the seeds and the cattle. Not only in India, but in many parts of the world too, women’s complementary, key role in agriculture and farming, the key activities associated with the fertility of a land, kingdom, nation, was well recognized and accorded the place of honour.

== Celebrating Womanhood ==
During the colonial rule in India and many other places, the control of these four (lands, the water resources, the seeds and the cattle) were plucked from the women and given to men. This created not just inequality but disturbed the complementary balance from the Indian society. The concept of Saha was soon forgotten and equality became the need and the cry of the women, rightly so, in the 20th century. March 8th, soon became a day of rallying around, for some women organisations, as Women’s Day, in the 20th Century, to espouse the cry and need for equality by women.

This concept of equality as espoused in Woman’s Day celebrations, is actually alien to the nature of Nature itself and to those who are more in tune with this Nature.

For them, celebrating womanhood is synonymous with understanding the fertility chain right from the elements of nature to the well being of mankind, as well as the nurturing role that could only be played by women. Such celebrations took various forms such as Varalakshmi Puja in South India.

Vara stands for boon and Lakshmi for all the wealth, not just material but also Lakshya, a single minded goal. It is a bonding of women with Nature and their reaffirmation to provide for their family, society and civilisation, which is celebrated through the land as Varalakshmi Puja. It is a celebration of all things positive in womanhood.

Such festivals of our soil, bring back focus on Nature and the complementary nature of everything in Nature, including that between men and women.

In this 21st century, as India moves forward in the comity of nations, we need to recognise the importance of International Women’s Day in reminding us of the balance needed between genders. At the same time, we also have to bring about the awareness world over, of the concept of Saha or complementing nature of genders, that is at the root of Indian tradition. It is only this commitment to complement one another, that can usher in an era of togetherness and cooperation between the two genders, to make this world a truly happy place. A place, where everything in Nature is in its right place, eventually doing the right thing for Nature, which they are a part of. An act of maintaining Dharma with one’s Sahadharmini. We need a Women’s Day today to celebrate and compliment this complementing nature in Nature.

== Complementary Nature in Nature ==
One often hears in the English language, the remark, “Behind every successful man is a woman. This phrase conjures up an image of the woman being lesser than the male gender and playing only a supportive role, while the man is the achiever. In stark contrast to the above statement and view, in India and the Indian languages, the wife is called “Saha Dharmini, meaning one who is along with the man. This term implies that the wife and the husband are to go along in life together, performing their deeds together, towards leading a righteous life, pursuing the 4 goals of life namely, Dharma – which may be translated in a limited way, as righteousness, Artha – wealth, Kama – desires and pleasures and Moksha – liberation, salvation. Many commonly understand “Saha to mean equal. But there is a different word for equal, namely “Sama, meaning same level. So the term “Saha Dharmini must have a deeper connotation. In many languages brothers and sisters are called Sahodara and Sahodari respectively, meaning the ones who was born of the same mother as you, who bears and sharer the joys and burdens of a joint family.

Saha seems to be more than just equal. Saha denotes a form of parternship, “co- as in cooperative, togetherness. And for a partnership, togetherness and a cooperative effort to be successful, it calls for a sense of complementing one another to complete the task on hand effectively. The word Saha therefore denotes complementary, helping. If the two partners are just equals and have equal of everything, there definitely would be times when their strengths would add up and double the gains. But there would also be times when both would be found lacking and there would be great gaps and falls. While in the case of complementing, what one lacks, the other can provide, thus leaving no room for a gap in the collective unit. If every such, complete family unit were to complement each other in a collective living community, then there would be no gaps in the society, civilization as a whole too. Amongst equals, each tries to score over the other. Equals lead to competition, infights and separation.

In a complement, since each one is aware of the strengths and weaknesses of each other, they do not see any competition from the other. So complements lead to dependency, togetherness and partnership.
This philosophy formed the basis for the framing of the various family models and the structure of the Indian society, in the days of the past.
By referring to a wife as a Saha Dharmacharini, Indian thought and ethos, thus stressed on the fact that men and women are complementary in nature to one another and can only collectively perform their righteous duties at 3 levels, namely for their,
home and family
society and community
culture and civilization
We can see such a complementing nature at work in the whole of Nature.
Even the lion, the symbol of masculinity, relents to this driving force of Nature. It is the females in a pride of lions, who typically hunt and bring back food for the pride. However, it is the male, the lion who gets to eat first and the most, before the others get their share. This is in return for his role of keeping the pride together and safe. This is where, the term “lion’s share originated from.
Amongst the birds, it is the male emperor penguin who takes over the baton from his female partner to hatch the egg and look after the young for months on end in the harsh, freezing Antarctic winter, while the female partner goes back to the sea, to replenish her store of energy and bring back food for the penguin chick.
In the insect kingdom, all the bees, males included, work to the tunes of the Queen Bee.

In each species, the male and female, evolve roles and responsibilities, suited to their innate, individual capability.
A representation of such a complementing concept is the depiction of Shiva, a popular divinity of the land as ArdhaNaari, meaning half woman, where the figure of half man and half woman sharing every part of the body shows the complementary nature of roles they are supposed to play in all activities of life.

Ardhanaari
This is further exemplified and elaborated in the concept of the three feminine divinities, the wives of the three primary divinities, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, in the Indian pantheon of Gods.
If we pause and observe intently,
the wife of Brahma the creator, is Saraswathi, the embodiment of knowledge, for, in order to create, knowledge is a requisite and Saraswathi brings in this knowledge. The wife of Vishnu, the preserver, is Lakshmi, the embodiment of wealth, for, in order to sustain and operate, wealth is a requisite and Lakshmi brings in this wealth. the wife of Shiva, the regenerator, recycler, is Shakthi, the embodiment of energy, for, in order to recycle i.e. destroy and recreate, energy is a requisite and Shakthi brings in that energy.
The masculine aspect in these concepts, denote a function in the cycle of the Universe, while the feminine aspect denotes the substance or resource required for this functioning.
These feminine divinities were perhaps the earliest “Women of Substance.

This symbolism denotes the higher understanding in the civilization, that the functioning and the resources needed to function, coming together with a purpose, is what ensures successful completion of any activity.
It is the understanding of this complementary nature of Nature, all the way from the divine forces at work throughout the Universe, to the various living forms in this Universe, including man and woman on earth, that formed the ethos of the land of India.
These ethos through the ages has given the due position and respect, in all spheres of life, to men and women.
It is this realization that was put in practice in various facets of life concerning men and women and their roles in society, in India, through the ages. To an extent, these ethos also found reflection in other fields also, namely Astronomy and social customs.
In many marriage customs of India, after the couple is wed, one of the wedding ritual is, the gazing of Arundhati-Vasishta. The husband and wife are taken outside by the priest and asked to gaze at Arundhati-Vasishta in the sky.
Ever wondered what this ritual is all about and who are Arundhati-Vasishta and that too, in the sky?
One of the spectacular constellations in the northern hemisphere, is the Ursa Major constellation, also called the Great Bear, the Big Dipper. This constellation can be identified by seven prominent stars.

The significance of this constellation is that when we join the two stars in the belly of the bear, they always point to the Pole Star in the North.
This constellation is called Sapta Rishi mandalam in Indian astronomy and each of the seven prominent stars has been named after some of the prominent Rishi of India.
One such star, at the tail, is called Mizar-Alcor in modern Astronomy. Since thousands of years, in Indian astronomy, this star has been known as Arundhati-Vasishta.
Vasishta was one of the most accomplished Rishi and together with Arundhati, his wife, they were regarded as the most knowledgeable, much respected, ideal couple in Indian legends.
Why a double name for this star?
After the invention of telescope, modern astronomers identified this star to be a double star. They also found that this system of double star is such that, it is not one star going around the other, which is the usual form of double star system. Instead, in Arundhati-Vasishta, the 2 stars go around each other, much as to how 2 people rotate and go around a common fixed spot in Phugadi, a game in India.

It is very interesting to note that these stars were given the name of an ideal couple. It is further interesting to note that gazing at this ideal couple in the sky has infiltrated as a marriage custom of the land, where after the couple is wed, the husband and wife are taken out by the priest and shown this Arundhati-Vasishta star system.
Today, neither the priest nor those around are able to explain this ritual. It is even ironic that this ritual is held during midday under the blazing sun, when no stars are seen and with no clue as to even where this star lies. But maintaining the ritual helps the young couple to be reminded of Arundhati and Vasishta and their inseparable nature which is greatly the need, of the present day marriages.

Our ancients were not only well advanced in Astronomy to have discovered this uncommon system of double stars but were also foresighted enough to include it as a marriage ritual to relate to and reinforce to common man, that in a marriage it is not the wife going around the husband or the other way around.
Their message to society was that, both husband and wife together, as partners, have to complement each other and go around, the central point – the family and society, fulfilling their duties to the best of their innate, individual nature and capability.
It is time for all of us in this world, to focus on Saha, the complementing factor too, rather than on Sama, the equalizing factor alone.
Understanding our ancients’ way of living and picking a leaf or two of wisdom from them, can help us in understanding ourselves better and handling our relationships and business in harmony with each other and with Nature.

== References ==
# DHARMA The Global Ethic, Justice M. RAMA JOIS
# Trivarga, M Rama Jois

Dharma and Women’s Rights

2017-09-11T13:30:40Z

P16232:

Ancient Bharatiya intellectual seers with due regard to the special attributes of womanhood, considered that women require special protection all through their life for it is indisputable that women are the most vulnerable to attack by men with evil propensities. It is a matter of common knowledge that offences against women by men have been a problem throughout human history and consequently, it is the woman who suffers irreparable physical, mental and socio-economic damage. In particular, sexual assault is the most heinous crime which ruins the whole life of a woman.

Hence, ancient Bharatiya intellectuals considered that the right to protection is important especially of women who were seen in Vedic times as ‘sustainers of our society’.

== Right to Protection ==
Undoubtedly, the right to equality and all other human rights are applicable to men and women, equally. However, protection for women being recognized by ancient seers as matter of great importance, they proclaimed that the best method to enforce Right to Protection of women is by ingraining the ideal of ‘Respect for womanhood’ in every individual and in particular in men through spiritual education right from inception and at all levels of education. Thus, right to protection of women was a cherished value of life from time immemorial in [[Bharatavarsha]]. The much maligned [[Manu]] in modern, “secular India has this to say about women’s rights in Vedic Bharat

यत्र नार्यास्तु पूज्यन्ते, रमन्ते तत्र देवताः ।

यत्रैतास्तु न पूज्यन्ते सर्वास्तत्राफलाः क्रियाः ।। (Manusmriti 3.56)

Where the woman is worshiped, there the celestial gods take delight while where they are not respected all activities are unfruitful.

प्रजनार्थं महाभागाः पूजार्हा गृहदीप्तयः ।

स्त्रियः श्रियश्च गेहेषु न विशेषोऽस्ति कश्चन ।। (Manusmriti 9.26)

A woman is respected for her ability to procreate, and are the shining lamps of the house. They are the very treasure of the family.

Other ancient texts also extoll the necessity of women's rights

पूज्यनीया महाभागाः पुण्यश्च गृहदीप्तयः ।

स्त्रियः श्रियः गृहस्योक्तास्तस्माद् रक्ष्या विशेषतः ।। (Viduraneeti 6.11)

Women are respectable, fortunate, pure, as a shining light of the house, and bring dignity to family. Hence they need to be protected specially.

मातृवत्परदारेषु यः परद्रव्येषु लोष्टवत् ।

आत्मवत्सर्वभूतेषु यः पश्यति स पण्डितः ।। (Hitopadesa 14)

“A person who regards, every woman other than his wife as equal to his own mother, who regards wealth which belongs to another as equal to a clod of earth and who regards every other individual, as his own self, is an educated man in the real sense of the term.

पुत्राधिकाश्च दौहित्रा भागिनेयाश्च भ्रातरः ।

कन्याधिकाः पालनीया भ्रातृभार्य्यास्नुषास्वसा ।। (Shukraneeti 3.166)

Daughter’s sons, sister’s sons and brothers are to be treated more importantly than own sons. Brother’s wives, daughter-in-laws of the house and sisters are to be given more importance than own daughter in a family. This shloka emphasizes the importance of different roles of woman in a family and the lofty position she is to be given.

These civilizational values of Bharat that have been distorted and misinterpreted by self-styled Indologists of the East India Company are the most valuable contribution to humanity. Apart from creating the value of respect for womanhood there have been special provisions for protecting several human rights of women. Rules of Dharma created an obligation on the part of the male members of a family to afford protection to every woman at every age and stage of life (Manusmriti 9.3). Further under Rajadharma it was the duty of the State to provide protection to women.

पिता रक्षति कौमरे भर्ता रक्षति यौवने ।

रक्षन्ति स्थविरे पुत्रा न स्त्री स्वातन्त्रयमर्हति ।। (Manusmriti 9.3)

“Father protects the girl during her childhood, the husband protects her after marriage and her sons protect her in old age. At no stage a woman should be left free. (without protection)

== Indology Myths to ‘Break India’ ==
The East India Company Indologists who strived for Bharat’s economic destruction, the destruction of its social fabric have used Manu’s verse on protection of women at every stage of her life to say that Vedas stifle women’s freedom as they order women to remain enslaved to men throughout their lives. The verses of Manusmriti that endorse the significance of women’s pivotal role in societal well-being, honoring women and the responsibility of society to ensure their well-being (Ch. 3 Verses 56, 57, 58, 62 and 114) have been totally ignored. An intelligent and honest reader of the verse understands very clear its import, i.e. to declare the responsibility of men (the father, husband and sons) to maintain and protect the daughter, wife and mother respectively. clearly, as stated by Western historians and their Indian disciples, it is not a directive to subjugate or dominate women, which interestingly was and continues to be the way of the Anglo-Saxons & Arab colonizers. To interpret the verse to the effect that it is a directive to treat a woman as a slave and that she should be deprived of freedom throughout her life is not only erroneous but should be put down as cultural genocide.

=== Purport of the Verse ===
Kerry Brown, in her book “The Essential Teachings of Hinduism (Arrow Books, London, 1990) ascertains the real meaning of the controversial verse in Manusmriti thus:

''“In Hinduism, a woman is looked after not because she is inferior or incapable but, on the contrary, because she is treasured. She is the pride and power of the society. '''Just as the crown jewels should not be left unguarded, neither should a woman be left unprotected.''' No extra burden of earning a living should be placed on women who already bear huge responsibilities in society; childbirth, child-care, domestic well-being and spiritual growth. She is the transmitter of culture to her children.''

== Laws to Ensure Right to Protection of Women ==
It is indisputable that by nature womanhood is tender and requires protection. Many activities of the day-to-day life put a woman or girl into situations where her security is threatened.

Supreme Court of India in the case of Vishaka vs State of Rajasthan, 1997 (6) SCC241, issued a directive to the Government and the employers to protect working women from sexual harassment in the workplace.

International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) has laid down the general recommendations in Article 11, in the context of “Violence and equality in employment.

In view of the modern civilization where many women work outside the home, laws which define the obligation of the employer to provide protection to working women against harassment have to be clearly laid in place. If such obligation were to be added to the aforesaid verse of Manusmriti, it would read as follows:

पिता रक्षति कौमरे भर्ता रक्षति यौवने ।

रक्षन्ति स्थविरे पुत्रा कार्यक्षेत्रे च स्वामिनः ।।

It is the obligation of:

The father to protect the girl till marriage; the husband to protect his wife after marriage;

the son to protect his mother during old age; the employer to protect women at work place

This is the real spirit of the verse and it is not a directive to treat women as slaves.

== Special Provisions of Ancient Laws: ==
# Women’s Property: The provision of ancient Indian law regarding perfecting title to an immovable property by adverse possession was made inapplicable in respect of property belonging to women, state and temple. न भोगं कल्पयेत्स्त्रीषु देवराजधनेषु च ।The spirit of or object behind modern laws ensuring women’s rights have been enshrined in our Vedas as is seen in the verse of Manusmriti- women require protection against the onslaughts of males with evil propensities.
# Death sentence for rape of women in custody : संरुध्दस्य वा तत्रैव घातः । तदेवाध्यक्षेण गृहीतायामार्यायां विद्यात् ।। “Capital sentence should be imposed for offence of rape committed against a woman arrested by an officer of the State. (Kautilya Arthasastra, p. 256)
# बलाच्चेत्पहृता कन्या मन्त्रैर्यदि न संस्कृता । अन्यस्मै विधिवद्देया यथा कन्या तथैव सा ।। “ If a damsel has been abducted and not given in marriage in accordance with lase, she may lawfully be given to another man. She is as chaste as a maiden. (Vasishta, p. 72-73, Dharmakosha, p. 1021) This specific provision “she is as chaste as a maiden is most humane for women who are the unfortunate victims of sexual assault, thus restoring their social status in the society.

== Why and how did March 8th come to be celebrated as International Women’s Day? ==
Women’s day is celebrated with much gusto on March 8th every year in different parts of the world. The trend has caught on in India too since the last decade or two. It was on this date March 8th 1885, that Susan Anthony of USA, addressed the House of Representatives in USA for equal rights for women, to vote in the US elections. Until then, the women in USA did not have the right to vote in elections. This day, thus represents a fight for equality from a position of inequality. While this is a red letter day for the march of women in USA, there have been many brave women in other parts of the world too who have fought the prevailing social conditions to bring about equality for women.

Such a secondary position for women in society comes from the fundamental thought and premise that, “behind every successful man there is a woman. This phrase by its implication means that the woman is always behind a man, supporting him, pushing him forward and allowing him to set the pace.

== Ardhangini ==
In contrast to this phrase, which denotes a secondary role for women, the Indian thought, expressed the relationship between man and woman through the word Ardhangini. Ardha means half or equal and angini comes from anga meaning part (of body). Thus women were considered literally as one who has an equal part or role in an effort and life of grihastha.

== Sama vs Saha ==
This equality was not limited by the word “equal but went beyond that into the realms of bringing out the best of the innate capability of each gender. In a couple, the woman is even today known as Sahadharmacharini, meaning one who is not just equal but complementary in carrying out their role of Dharma. There is a subtle essence conveyed in the usage of the words here. The word used for equal is Sama, whereas in the relationship between husband and wife it has been referred to as Saha, implying together, complement. This is because, the ancients, both the women and the men realised that by nature and by biological capacity, each gender has an innate strength and hence role to play in the sustenance of Nature and mankind, called Dharma. In this role play, one gender is not superior or inferior to another, causing the other gender to fight or claim for equality. Each gender is complementary to the other, based on their natural capability, capacity and role.

The Indian thought went one step further and also depicted the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, in a human form of a man and woman complementing each other in the form of Ardhanari, ie. half woman. This would reemphasize and reiterate to common man on a daily basis the essence of the role of the man and woman as they hold the society together. This knowledge of this land through the ages, kept reinforcing the focus on saha, to be complementary and not just sama, equal.

== The Fertility Chain ==
The description of feminity tends to focus on the sexuality of women today. Womanhood, the qualities of women, the capabilities of women, the role of a women is a lot more that sexuality. Women are regarded as the epitome of fertility. This is not just for the purpose of child bearing, but has more practical applications. In a predominantly agrarian civilization, the four aspects that control the fertility chain were in the control of women. These four were the lands, the water resources, the seeds and the cattle. Not only in India, but in many parts of the world too, women’s complementary, key role in agriculture and farming, the key activities associated with the fertility of a land, kingdom, nation, was well recognized and accorded the place of honour.

== Celebrating Womanhood ==
During the colonial rule in India and many other places, the control of these four (lands, the water resources, the seeds and the cattle) were plucked from the women and given to men. This created not just inequality but disturbed the complementary balance from the Indian society. The concept of Saha was soon forgotten and equality became the need and the cry of the women, rightly so, in the 20th century. March 8th, soon became a day of rallying around, for some women organisations, as Women’s Day, in the 20th Century, to espouse the cry and need for equality by women.

This concept of equality as espoused in Woman’s Day celebrations, is actually alien to the nature of Nature itself and to those who are more in tune with this Nature.

For them, celebrating womanhood is synonymous with understanding the fertility chain right from the elements of nature to the well being of mankind, as well as the nurturing role that could only be played by women. Such celebrations took various forms such as Varalakshmi Puja in South India.

Vara stands for boon and Lakshmi for all the wealth, not just material but also Lakshya, a single minded goal. It is a bonding of women with Nature and their reaffirmation to provide for their family, society and civilisation, which is celebrated through the land as Varalakshmi Puja. It is a celebration of all things positive in womanhood.

Such festivals of our soil, bring back focus on Nature and the complementary nature of everything in Nature, including that between men and women.

In this 21st century, as India moves forward in the comity of nations, we need to recognise the importance of International Women’s Day in reminding us of the balance needed between genders. At the same time, we also have to bring about the awareness world over, of the concept of Saha or complementing nature of genders, that is at the root of Indian tradition. It is only this commitment to complement one another, that can usher in an era of togetherness and cooperation between the two genders, to make this world a truly happy place. A place, where everything in Nature is in its right place, eventually doing the right thing for Nature, which they are a part of. An act of maintaining Dharma with one’s Sahadharmini. We need a Women’s Day today to celebrate and compliment this complementing nature in Nature.

== Complementary Nature in Nature ==
One often hears in the English language, the remark, “Behind every successful man is a woman. This phrase conjures up an image of the woman being lesser than the male gender and playing only a supportive role, while the man is the achiever. In stark contrast to the above statement and view, in India and the Indian languages, the wife is called “Saha Dharmini, meaning one who is along with the man. This term implies that the wife and the husband are to go along in life together, performing their deeds together, towards leading a righteous life, pursuing the 4 goals of life namely, Dharma – which may be translated in a limited way, as righteousness, Artha – wealth, Kama – desires and pleasures and Moksha – liberation, salvation. Many commonly understand “Saha to mean equal. But there is a different word for equal, namely “Sama, meaning same level. So the term “Saha Dharmini must have a deeper connotation. In many languages brothers and sisters are called Sahodara and Sahodari respectively, meaning the ones who was born of the same mother as you, who bears and sharer the joys and burdens of a joint family.

Saha seems to be more than just equal. Saha denotes a form of parternship, “co- as in cooperative, togetherness. And for a partnership, togetherness and a cooperative effort to be successful, it calls for a sense of complementing one another to complete the task on hand effectively. The word Saha therefore denotes complementary, helping. If the two partners are just equals and have equal of everything, there definitely would be times when their strengths would add up and double the gains. But there would also be times when both would be found lacking and there would be great gaps and falls. While in the case of complementing, what one lacks, the other can provide, thus leaving no room for a gap in the collective unit. If every such, complete family unit were to complement each other in a collective living community, then there would be no gaps in the society, civilization as a whole too. Amongst equals, each tries to score over the other. Equals lead to competition, infights and separation.

In a complement, since each one is aware of the strengths and weaknesses of each other, they do not see any competition from the other. So complements lead to dependency, togetherness and partnership.
This philosophy formed the basis for the framing of the various family models and the structure of the Indian society, in the days of the past.
By referring to a wife as a Saha Dharmacharini, Indian thought and ethos, thus stressed on the fact that men and women are complementary in nature to one another and can only collectively perform their righteous duties at 3 levels, namely for their,
home and family
society and community
culture and civilization
We can see such a complementing nature at work in the whole of Nature.
Even the lion, the symbol of masculinity, relents to this driving force of Nature. It is the females in a pride of lions, who typically hunt and bring back food for the pride. However, it is the male, the lion who gets to eat first and the most, before the others get their share. This is in return for his role of keeping the pride together and safe. This is where, the term “lion’s share originated from.
Amongst the birds, it is the male emperor penguin who takes over the baton from his female partner to hatch the egg and look after the young for months on end in the harsh, freezing Antarctic winter, while the female partner goes back to the sea, to replenish her store of energy and bring back food for the penguin chick.
In the insect kingdom, all the bees, males included, work to the tunes of the Queen Bee.

In each species, the male and female, evolve roles and responsibilities, suited to their innate, individual capability.
A representation of such a complementing concept is the depiction of Shiva, a popular divinity of the land as ArdhaNaari, meaning half woman, where the figure of half man and half woman sharing every part of the body shows the complementary nature of roles they are supposed to play in all activities of life.

Ardhanaari
This is further exemplified and elaborated in the concept of the three feminine divinities, the wives of the three primary divinities, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, in the Indian pantheon of Gods.
If we pause and observe intently,
the wife of Brahma the creator, is Saraswathi, the embodiment of knowledge, for, in order to create, knowledge is a requisite and Saraswathi brings in this knowledge. The wife of Vishnu, the preserver, is Lakshmi, the embodiment of wealth, for, in order to sustain and operate, wealth is a requisite and Lakshmi brings in this wealth. the wife of Shiva, the regenerator, recycler, is Shakthi, the embodiment of energy, for, in order to recycle i.e. destroy and recreate, energy is a requisite and Shakthi brings in that energy.
The masculine aspect in these concepts, denote a function in the cycle of the Universe, while the feminine aspect denotes the substance or resource required for this functioning.
These feminine divinities were perhaps the earliest “Women of Substance.

This symbolism denotes the higher understanding in the civilization, that the functioning and the resources needed to function, coming together with a purpose, is what ensures successful completion of any activity.
It is the understanding of this complementary nature of Nature, all the way from the divine forces at work throughout the Universe, to the various living forms in this Universe, including man and woman on earth, that formed the ethos of the land of India.
These ethos through the ages has given the due position and respect, in all spheres of life, to men and women.
It is this realization that was put in practice in various facets of life concerning men and women and their roles in society, in India, through the ages. To an extent, these ethos also found reflection in other fields also, namely Astronomy and social customs.
In many marriage customs of India, after the couple is wed, one of the wedding ritual is, the gazing of Arundhati-Vasishta. The husband and wife are taken outside by the priest and asked to gaze at Arundhati-Vasishta in the sky.
Ever wondered what this ritual is all about and who are Arundhati-Vasishta and that too, in the sky?
One of the spectacular constellations in the northern hemisphere, is the Ursa Major constellation, also called the Great Bear, the Big Dipper. This constellation can be identified by seven prominent stars.

The significance of this constellation is that when we join the two stars in the belly of the bear, they always point to the Pole Star in the North.
This constellation is called Sapta Rishi mandalam in Indian astronomy and each of the seven prominent stars has been named after some of the prominent Rishi of India.
One such star, at the tail, is called Mizar-Alcor in modern Astronomy. Since thousands of years, in Indian astronomy, this star has been known as Arundhati-Vasishta.
Vasishta was one of the most accomplished Rishi and together with Arundhati, his wife, they were regarded as the most knowledgeable, much respected, ideal couple in Indian legends.
Why a double name for this star?
After the invention of telescope, modern astronomers identified this star to be a double star. They also found that this system of double star is such that, it is not one star going around the other, which is the usual form of double star system. Instead, in Arundhati-Vasishta, the 2 stars go around each other, much as to how 2 people rotate and go around a common fixed spot in Phugadi, a game in India.

It is very interesting to note that these stars were given the name of an ideal couple. It is further interesting to note that gazing at this ideal couple in the sky has infiltrated as a marriage custom of the land, where after the couple is wed, the husband and wife are taken out by the priest and shown this Arundhati-Vasishta star system.
Today, neither the priest nor those around are able to explain this ritual. It is even ironic that this ritual is held during midday under the blazing sun, when no stars are seen and with no clue as to even where this star lies. But maintaining the ritual helps the young couple to be reminded of Arundhati and Vasishta and their inseparable nature which is greatly the need, of the present day marriages.

Our ancients were not only well advanced in Astronomy to have discovered this uncommon system of double stars but were also foresighted enough to include it as a marriage ritual to relate to and reinforce to common man, that in a marriage it is not the wife going around the husband or the other way around.
Their message to society was that, both husband and wife together, as partners, have to complement each other and go around, the central point – the family and society, fulfilling their duties to the best of their innate, individual nature and capability.
It is time for all of us in this world, to focus on Saha, the complementing factor too, rather than on Sama, the equalizing factor alone.
Understanding our ancients’ way of living and picking a leaf or two of wisdom from them, can help us in understanding ourselves better and handling our relationships and business in harmony with each other and with Nature.

== References ==
# DHARMA The Global Ethic, Justice M. RAMA JOIS
# Trivarga, M Rama Jois

Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)

2017-09-11T13:24:49Z

P16232: /* परिचय || Introduction */

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. Prodigious energy was expended in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with immaculate integrity, up until a few centuries back, when due to historical reasons like foreign invasions and colonisation that resulted in the loot and digestion of our knowledge systems and wealth that led to the decline in oral recitation of the Vedas.

== वेदपाठपद्धती || Vedapaatha Paddhati ==
Rushis (Vedic seers) devised means of protecting and preserving the text of Vedas letter by letter, with all their accessories and accents. Vedic mantras have स्वर || Swara (accents) which preserve its original form of word- construction. Memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. These texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. This ensured their verbatim preservation through ages of time.

==== प्रकृति पाठ || Prakriti Pathas ====
These are three systems for memorizing Mantras most commonly known as:
# संहिता पाठ || Samhita-Patha - in which Mantra remains in its true form.
# पद पाठ || Pada-Patha- in which each word of a Mantra is separately spoken.
# क्रम पाठ || Krama-Patha- in which two words of a Mantra are spoken jointly as Ka-kha, kha-ga.

==== विकृति पाठ || Vikriti Pathas ====
There were eight ways of memorizing Vedas. These are
# जातपाठ || Jatapatha
# मालापाठ || Malapatha
# शिखापाठ || Shikhapatha
# रेखापाठ || Rekhapatha
# ध्वजपाठ || Dhvajapatha
# दण्डपाठ || Dandapatha
# रथपाठ || Rathapatha, and
# घनापाठ || Ghanapatha
Among them Ghana Patha is most difficult and the longest.

As its reach became wider, it helped in disseminating the knowledge of the Vedas, their student lineage also helped committing it to memory.

Without the use of writing a fool-proof method each Mantra was chanted in various patterns and combinations to prevent any errors creeping into the Vedas. The modes of chanting prescribe the basics like how much time one has to take for reciting a word, how to regulate breathing while reciting so that required vibrations are produced in the specific parts of the body which will yield pure word-sound.

Forms of recitation such as the jaṭā-pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") is one in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated again in the original order.

Another step was to prepare treatises known as अनुक्रमणि || Anukramanis in which the names of ऋषि || Rishi, देवता || Devata, छन्दः || Chandas are mentioned in reference to each hymn of the Vedas. Chandas means meter which also helps in avoiding loss of content by enforcing number of syllables.

That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rigveda, as redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings within that school.

== Vedic Structure ==
The Vedas followed the traditional oral tradition until Vyasadeva’s great contribution of putting it into a written format do so.

A question may be, "all the मन्त्र || mantras, सूक्त || suktas, and अनुवाक || anuvakas that are being recited now did they exist then"? To answer the non-believer and non-discerning the example of the पुरुष सूक्त || Purusha suktas and other works can be used which makes it clear that the yagna related suktas were not in the same form as presently available but were available in another form. Also the fact that a यज्ञ || Yagna would not take place unless there was one Rik, one Yajasva and one Sama. The Rik must have expanded over time just as trees give us more flowers and fruits time goes yet belong to same species. Similarly, for posterity, the later Rishis invoked the new suktas or mantras based upon their particular इष्ट देव || Ishta Deva which then became a part of ऋक || Rik, यजस्व || Yajasva and साम || Sama Vedas. As they came more into usage they were integrated with the existing Suktas, so the foundational meaning remains as in the Vedas. Over different time periods the देव || Devas nor the क्रिया || kriyas (rituals) did not change their integral meaning. This is the nature of the the सम्प्रदाय || Sampradaya style of गुरु शिष्य || Guru sishya learning (disciplined succession).

This phenomenal system helped disseminate and retain knowledge widely without much difficulty. In the Rikvedic time all were not Rishis. Notably, Vedas were not common knowledge. If we understand the connection of pure lineage or गोत्र || Gotras, the strict disciplinary life in [[Gurukula (गुरुकुल)|गुरुकुल || Gurukula]], the austerity of the Rishis’ lifestyle, the process of protecting secret meanings of Vedas and process of right way of reciting the mantras - it helps us understand that it was possible to protect one integral voice of Vedas. Therefore while many Veda suktas disappeared, it is important to note that they were replaced by new suktas with the same meaning and function. All Acharyas accept that studying the Vedas is mandatory for understanding the integral meaning of Vedas. If every one had accepted every Upanishad has different import, every आचार्य || acharya has different conclusions and according to diversity of teacher there are different understanding of Vedas then there would have been no clash among different schools hence this shows that every one believes that there is only one essential understanding.

== Gurukulas ==
Gurushishya parampara was the main foundation that preserved Sanatana Dharma since ages. From upanayana or initiation until the age of 20, Brahmachaaris study vedas, conducting yagnas and yagas, collecting the samidhas (thus they learn Plant Sciences), raising and domestication of cattle (they learn Animal Sciences) and different ashrama dharmas (they learn Human Sciences) and living harmoniously with nature.

Pandavas and Kauravas in Mahabharata, were educated by the renowned Guru Dronaacharya, in a gurukula system. So did Bhagavan Srikrishna and Balarama under the aegis of Guru sandeepani.

The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the Vedangas, were part of the curriculum at ancient [[Bharatvarsha|Bharata]] universities such as at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramashila.

The titles for scholars who mastered the Vedas were:
# द्विवेदी || Dwivedi: two Vedas
# त्रिवेदी || Trivedi: three Vedas
# चतुर्वेदी || Chaturvedi: four Vedas.
These remain now as surnames of people in India. पण्डित || Pandits (priests) or people who perform pujas or rituals either in the temple, home or workplace offer mantras, called मन्त्र पुष्प || mantra pushpa (a collection of all the four Vedas). This clearly reveals that the four Vedas co-existed and not as the diabolical Indologist claimed, one after the other. The very fact that same mantras are available in different vedas in different formats indicate the oneness of all vedas.

== Translation of Vedas ==
Translation in the ancient अर्ष || Arsha tradition as done by authentic Vedic scholars is factual and done without prejudice and with no extraneous motive or for an academic agenda. Vedam is verily the भगवत्वाणी || Bhagavat Vaani (Words of Brahma) revealed in scientific [[Vedic language (वैदिक भाषा)|Vedic Language]] which is samskrit free from local color and historical acts, therefore Vedic language is to be interpreted and understood according to its own laws and structure, and the only key available for such interpretation is the निरुक्तम् || Nirukta of Maharshi Yaska and the grammar of Panini & [[Patanjali (पतञ्जलि)|Patanjali]].

A literal translation of the Vedas creates confusions and contradictions as the English language is insufficient to express the deep inner meaning embedded in Vedas. A good commentator, should be adept in languages, carefully choose words, and explain with derivatives to analyse the hidden nuances of meaning within their context but not always can it be understood by the reader.

For example, the literal meaning of the verse,<blockquote>"
सुमित्रिय न आप ओषधयः सन्तु || (Yaju. Veda. 36.23)"</blockquote><blockquote>"
sumitriya na aapa oshadhayah santu || (Yaju. Veda. 36.23)"</blockquote>Meaning : May the waters, vital forces of life, and herbs be friendly to us and may they be enemies to those who hate us and whom we hate.

The literal meaning is incomprehensible and meaningless. The contextual meaning of this mantra is:

"May waters, tonics, pranic energies and medicinal herbs be good friends of our health system and immunity and let the same waters, tonics, pranic energies herbal medicines act against those ailments, diseases and negativities which injure us, which we hate to suffer and which we love to destroy, moreover let them have no side effects because side effects too help the negativities and injure us".

It becomes a powerful prayer for the well-being of an advanced society, and very logically the next Mantra expounds a prayer for a full hundred years and more of life and health.<blockquote>"
तच्चक्षुर्देवहितम् पुरुस्तत् || (Yaju. Veda. 36.24)"</blockquote><blockquote>"
tacchakshurdevahitam purastat || (Yaju. Veda. 36.24)"</blockquote>Swami Dayananda wrote in the post-colonized context after independence whereupon he called upon his countrymen "to go back to the Vedas" for eradication of social evils as he opined that the cause of degradation and slavery of Indian nation was the ignorance of true Vedic teaching on which our culture was based and also thrived. It is true that we became independent in 1947, but then we got freedom and not independence. We continue to function as an Anglo-Saxon cultural satellite mainly as a market for its ideology through the English language and a nursery to train a new generation of sepoys and Coolies.

== Modern Vedic Education ==
The Vedas were likely written down for the first time around 500 BC. However, all printed editions of the Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the version existing in about the 16th century AD.

Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The Sampurnanand Samskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal that are dated from the 11th century onwards.

With the discovery of paper and through the centuries improved stationery material, was the main means of preserving the vedic literature. Western Indologists have generated volumes of their interpretation of vedas and took many manuscripts from India to other places like Germany. However, the main drawback was the non-availability of a voice preservation method since early 18th century. Vedic language which primarily depends on the accents and pronunciation, was not preserved and thus many shakas have been lost with those learned scholars since few centuries. Today many manuscripts and valuable literary treasures can be found in remote corners of the world.

== Discussion ==
Computers and modern digital techniques revolutionized the way vedic knowledge is read and disseminated in the present day. Many works have been compiled lately as an attempt to reconnect our Vedic heritage to our people from which we have been disconnected since the 800-year foreign domination (first by the Arabs and then by the Anglo-Saxons) of our land. As many acharyas say unless our people give up the Asuric principles of Western economists and return to the Vedic path, no progress is possible in social,political, economic and spiritual spheres.

We need to revitalize our civilization like the call of Swami Dayananda post-independence to counter the
Indologist’s narrative of Caste system, idolatry, untouchability, all types of superstitions and slaughtering of animals in the sacrifices, and even the नर-मेध || Nara-medha (human
sacrifices), results of wrong Vedic interpretations, many such things that Hindus had to pay heavily for since the last 300 years.

The central importance of the new-age Vedic translations is that it presents the Vedas from its primary sources, especially in a context where knowledge systems are directed by propaganda from Internet sources and social media and not evidence-based facts.

== References ==
# Narayanacharya, K. S. (2011). ''Veda Sanskritiya Parichaya, Part I''. Hubli:Sahitya Prakashana.
# http://ignca.nic.in/vedic_portal_introduction.htm

Agni (अग्निः)

2017-09-11T13:14:31Z

P16232:

Agni (Samskrit: अग्निः) means Fire, Lighting, Purifier. Agni (the Fire deity) occupies a key place in Vedic mantras.

== Introduction ==
Fire was the one of the main elements that brought about a change in the way human civilizations evolved '''as man learnt to colonize.''' '''During evolution, taming of the fire is a significant step as man learnt to eat cooked food and thereby moved away eating raw things (especially raw meat). Cooking of food further led to man's living in societies and thereby led to expansion of the concept of domestication of animals and agricultural systems. Thus harnessi'''ng the powers of nature plays an important role in the evolution of man and this fact is explicit in Vedas as Agni was significantly praised for his prowess.

== Introduction ==
A large number of mantras of the Rig veda are devoted to describing and praising Agni. Some of his attributes are described as follows:
* '''Panchabhutas''' : Fire is one of the Panchabhutas or the Five traditional elemental forces that make up the world of matter.
* '''Bearer of Sacrificial Offerings''' : The presiding deity of tejas, fire and heat, Agni is revered as the receiver of oblations and sacrifices of men on behalf of the Devatas.
* '''First Rig Suktam''' : Fire has a very prominent place since the Vedic period and the Rig Veda starts with the Agni sukta (Agnimeele purohitam...). Agni is second only to Indra in power and importance attributed to him in Vedic literature, with 218 out of 1,028 hymns of the Rigveda dedicated to him. With Varuna and Indra he is one of the supreme gods in the Rig Veda.
* '''Dikpalaka''' : He is the one of the [[अष्टदिक्पालकाः ॥ Astadikpalakas]] or the presiding deities of the eight directions as described in Devi bhagavatam (Chap. 8). Among them He is the आग्नेयदिशादिपतिः ॥ Aagneyadishadhipati or the sovereign guardian of the Aagneya direction or the south-east quarter.

* '''Swaroopa/Nature''' : He has a five-fold existence and manifests as the
** Fire (Flame or Agni) on the Bhuva or Earth
** Lightning in the Aakasha or Sky
** Self illumine bodies such as Surya in the Antariksha or heavenly Cosmic regions.
** Badabaagni in water (underground volcanic structures)
** Jataraagni in all mortal beings as hunger
Thus, as an element that lights up and consumes everything He plays a very significant role in Sristi.
* '''Devataswaroopam''' : He is prominent as the twin brother of Indra and the husband of Svāhā and Svadhā, and the father of Dakşiņam, Gārhapatyam and Āhavanīyam.
* '''Jnana Tattvam''' : He is also known as the God of Knowledge. Knowledge or nature of every object is known only in the presence of Light or Deepam. But Fire is, by nature, self illumine and does not need another lamp to reveal its nature.

== Etymology ==
'''[[Amarakosha]]''' defines the following about Agni in स्वर्गवर्गः (Prathama kanda Slokas 53 - 57)

अग्निर्वैश्वानरो वह्निर्वीतिहोत्रो धनंजयः । कृपीटयोनिर्ज्वलनो जातवेदास्तनूनपात् ॥ (Amara 1. स्वर्ग. 53)

बर्हिः शुष्मा कृष्णवर्त्मा शोचिष्केश उषर्बुधः । आशयाशो बृह्दभानुः कृशानुः पावकोनलः ॥ (Amara 1. स्वर्ग. 54)

रोहिताश्वो वायुसखः शिखावानाशुशुक्षणिः । हिरण्यरेता हुतभुग्दहनो हव्यवाहनः ॥ (Amara 1. स्वर्ग. 55)

सप्तार्चिर्दमुनाः शुक्रश्चित्रभानुर्विभावसुः । शुचिरप्पित्तमौर्वस्तु वाडवो वडवानलः ॥ (Amara 1. स्वर्ग. 56)

वह्नेर्द्वयोर्ज्वालकिलावर्चिर्हेतिः शिखा स्त्रियाम् । त्रिषु स्फुलिङ्गोग्निकणः संतापः संज्वरः समौ || (Amara 1. स्वर्ग. 57)

Different names of Agni include Agni, Vaishvanara, Krushanu, Jaataveda, Barhihi, Paavaka, Analaha, Vayusakha, Hiranyareta, Havyavahana, Jwala, Chitrabhanu, Vadavanala and other names.

The word ''agni'' is samskrit for "fire" (noun). Agni has three forms: 'fire', 'lightning' and 'the Sun'. Agni is the drying agent which neither wets nor moistens anything.

Yaskacharya explains that the fire-god is called अग्नि (''Agni'') because he is अग्रणी (''Agrani''), the foremost leader who is the ever awake disseminator of knowledge and the first principle of thought which manifests as Speech; it is carried at the front in all ritualistic undertakings (''yajnas'').

The ancient seers divided Agni into three parts –
# Gaarhapatya ( Agni used by for general domestic usage)
# Aahvaniya (Agni used for inviting and welcoming a personage or deity)
# Dakshinaagni (Agni used for fighting against evil).
The Rig Veda often says that Agni arises from water or dwells in the waters; the Vedic sage says that Agni manifesting in the waters and seated in the lap of the winding waters, flaming upward, increases; and that Agni was born by the prowess of Tvashtr (Rig Veda I.95.5).

== Role of Agni ==
Agni is the god of fire and sacrifice, of divine knowledge, and is also associated with water. Agni, identified with energy and action, is the first emanation and the sacred spark hidden within all beings.

=== हव्यवाहनः ॥ Havyavahana ===
Agni is the very personification of the sacrificial fire. He is associated with Vedic sacrifice, taking offerings of men to the other world in his fire. He is the priest of the gods, and the god of the priests. Through ''yajna'' he carries the oblations to the gods, to ensure the continuance of conditions favorable to mankind. No devata is approachable without the medium of Agni, and no divinity is without the presence of Agni.

=== अग्निर्होता ॥ Agni as Hota ===
In the Vedic literature, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most important position. He occupies a prominent place in the Vedas (both as a deity and as a mantra-drastha) and particularly the Brahmanas. There are over 200 hymns addressed to and in praise of Agni. Apart from that Agni also has the role of a mantra-drashta as to him are revealed many mantras of the 9th Mandala of Rig veda.

The first mantra of the Rig veda (1.1.1) starts with the word Agni of the Agni sukta and and thereafter many mantras and suktas are given lauding his role in the existence of life forms.

The Taittiriya samhita outlines the different activities of a householder as the one who tends the Agnihotra for the welfare of nature, animals and plants and fellow human beings.

=== ज्ञानप्रदायकः ॥ Jnanapradayaka ===
In Isavasyopanishad, Agni is worshiped as the torch bearer to the departing soul, leading it through the path of the Devatas (Devayana) towards the Parabrahman. He is the witness to the deeds of all beings.

Kenopanishad describes Agni as the Energy that runs the life processes of any being. Kathopanishad reveals the secrets of the fire that lead one on an enlightened path to the higher worlds or realms. This most divinely explained by Yama, the bearer of Dharma to Nachiketa, the young scholar.

Chandogya Upanishad, in a more sakarmaka marg, throws light on how a normal householder can enter the Brahmajana marga thorough the tending of Agnihotra as given in Upakosala's and Satyakama Jabali's conversation (chap 5). The essence of brahmavidya symbolized by Panchagnividya for the householder is given in this Upanishad.

Mundakopanishad, explains how a person progresses through the different ashrams in life and the rules and consequences of not tending to the Agnihotra by a grihasta (Mund. Upan. 1.2.2 to 1.2.4).

=== जातवेदाः ॥ Jataveda and क्रव्याद ॥ Kravyaad ===
Agni has two forms: Jaataveda and Kravyaada:
# Jataveda is invoked to carry the offerings (except flesh) to the respective Gods, in which case Agni is light identified with knowledge and with Brahman.
# Kravyaad is invoked to burn the flesh (corpses and animal parts) in the Pitri-yajna for which purpose Agni is obtained from the rays of the Surya.
In the Jataveda form, "He who knows all creatures", Agni acts as the intermediary between man and devatas as the divine sacrificial priest. He is the messenger who carries the oblation from humans to devatas, bringing the Devatas to the site of sacrifice, and interceding between devatas and humans (Rig Veda 1.26.3). When Agni is praised for his presence, he brings all other deities to bless the performer of the vedic ritual (yagnakarta) with abundance, wealth and fulfill the desires when pleased. [[Agnihotra (अग्निहोत्रम्)|Agnihotram]], or the sacrificial fires are thus kept by the grihasthas, and offerings (ghee, rice, purnaahuti etc) are made to Agnideva. This is of two types - nitya and kaamya.

Kravyaad (क्रव्याद) is the form of Agni which consumes corpses, the fire of the funeral pyre; the fire that burns the corpses can consume everything. In this form, after one’s death and at the time of cremation, Agni heats up and burns the body (SB 2.2.4.8) and is the fastest way to unite the body's panchabhutas (five elements) back into them. Agni thus releases the Jeevatma from the body, and the soul then starts its ascent to the higher realms based on its Karma.

=== देवतास्वरुपम् ॥ Agnidevata Swaroopam ===

==== Birth and Family ====
There are different statements in different texts about the birth of Agni.
* Agni descended from Vishnu in the following order according to Puranic Encyclopedia (based on Bhagavata and Mahabharata) : Vishnu - Brahma - Angiras - Brihaspati - Agni.

* Agni is the described as the son of Vaayu as per Rig Veda sukta (1.16.112). Fire is made by the attrition of two sticks (some scholars believe these to be from Sami trees) named as Arani, and sages get the strength to produce fire from it through the Vyaana vaayu (one of the panchavaayus), hence Agni is the son of Vaayu.

* Mahabharata Aanushasana parva (Chap. 85) mentions the association of the Sami tree and Agni devata. It is said that the heart (core) of the Sami tree branches have fire in them. Rishis use this tree branches to generate fire. After the curse of Bhrugu maharshi Agni hides himself in different places and ultimately devas find him in the Sami tree. Hence this tree is sacred and since this finding out of Agni after a long absence is like a rebirth, the Puranas mention it as being born from Sami Tree.

* Mundakopanishad describes the origin of Sristi and the Panchabhutas. Thus, from the Paramapurusha arises Agni as one of the five elements.
<blockquote>"अग्निमूर्धा चक्षुषी चन्द्रसूर्यौ दिश: श्रोत्रे वाग्विवृताश्च वेदा: ।</blockquote><blockquote>वायु: प्राणो हृदयं विश्वमस्य पद्भयां पृथिवी ह्येष सर्वभूतान्तरात्मा ।।" (Mund. Upan. 2.1.4).</blockquote><blockquote>Meaning : Agni (Fire) is forehead of the Paramapurusha while Surya and Chandra are the eyes. Vaayu is the breath. </blockquote>
* Agni was born to Pururavas as a son named Jaatavedas according to Shrimad Bhaagavatam (Navama Skanda, Chap 14).
Mahabharata's Sabha Parva (Chap. 31) talks about Sudarshana, as the wife of Agni deva. She was the daughter of King Neela of Mahishmatipura.

Agni has two consorts, Svaha and Svadha. Agni through Svaahadevi (invocation offering) and fathered three sons - Paavaka, Pavamana and Suchi, who in their turn had forty-five children. Thus, Agni, his three sons, and fortyfive grandsons, together constitute the fortynine Fires mentioned in the Puranas (अङ्गिरसम् Angirasam). Suchi, born of Svaahadevi is the Badavaagni or Badabaagni, or the Agni that resides in the underground parts of the earth (volcanoes) Agni Purana Chapter 20.

==== पावकः ॥ Pavaka ====
Offended by Agni, Bhrigu had cursed Agni to become the devourer of all things on this earth, but Brahma modified that curse and made Agni the purifier of all things he touched.

==== दाहकः '''॥''' Daahaka ====
Agni is feared as the deity for destruction. In Mahabharata (Adi Parva. Khandava daha parva Chap. 221 to 226), there is a legend about Agni. Agni who suffers from stomach ailments (due to the Yagnas of Svetaki King) was advised to consume the Khandava forest which contains the medicinal herbs that can treat his condition. In the process, Indra protects Takshaka who resides in the same forest, thus preventing Agni from consuming the medicinal plants. In this parva, Krishna and Arjuna, are requested by Agni (who in the guise of a Brahmana) to quench his hunger. Realizing his true form, they agree to prevent his obstacles (Indra from sending heavy rain) in consuming the forest.

Pleased with their offer of help Agni gave Arjuna an arrow case which would never be empty, a chariot bearing Hanuman on the flag and four white horses and the famous Gandiva bow. To Krishna he gave the Chakraayudha or discus. With the help of these military equipment, Krishna and Arjuna created a canopy of arrow against the downpour created by Indra and thus, Agni burned incessantly for fifteen days, and was cured of his stomach ailments.

=== अग्निपुराणम् ॥ Agni Puranam ===
Agni has a purana ascribed to him, named as Agni Purana (one of the ten main Puranas), and is said to have been related to Brahmarshi Vasishta by Agni himself. In here, Agni gives the essence of Brahmavidya apart from the details of the ten avataras or incarnations of Vishnu. This purana is a sacred text containing the expositions on the following matters in brief
* religious rituals such as conducting vratas or sacred vows, pilgrimages and consequences of attaining hell when these dharmas are not adhered to.
* different Manu's in each Manvantara or Era of Manu
* the different varnasrama dharmas and raja dharmas
* astrology and time aspects
* various aspects about construction of temples
* wars between devas and asuras
* list of all other Mahapuranas and their length in terms of slokas
* literature and grammar. Agni Purana is the oldest text to talk about the characteristics of a Kavya or poetic text.
* the origin of sristi and pralaya or destruction
* yoga sastra and brahmavidya

== Agni In Ramayana and Mahabharata ==

=== कार्तिकेय ॥ Kaartikeya ===
Valmiki Ramayana ( Balakanda Chap 36) details the birth of Kaartikeya and the role of Agni, His leadership of Krittika nakshatra.

Although we see a few versions of this event, generally it is said that the devatas request Bhudevi to receive Shiva’s energy (formed due to divine association with Parvati for 300 divyayugas). Once received part of it takes the shape of gold and the rest of it, unable to be borne by her, is given to Agni upon the request of the devatas. Agni, unable to bear the effulgence, gives it to Gangadevi, who then bears a six-headed child and leaves Him in the Sharavana reeds in a forest near the river, hence Shiva's son is also called Vahnigarbha (Agni), Gaangeya (Gangadevi) and Sharavana (as he is born in Sharavana reeds).

Thereafter, the six stars of Krittika, feed and raise the six-headed boy. Hence he is called as Kaartikeya in honor of the six mothers who cared for him. Agni having given them this honour of being associated with the son of Shiva is accepted as the

Parvati angry at being denied motherhood curses that the Devas wives would be infertile and never enjoy parental happiness furthermore. She angered by Prithvi for being a part of this matter, curses her to be uneven and 'one with many husbands' (Earth having many landscapes is ruled by many kings (called as Bhupati)). She curses Agni that he would be an all-consumer, without distinction between pure and impure things and and everything that touches him would turn into ash (bhasma).

=== अग्निप्रवेसम् ॥ Agnipravesham ===
Valmiki Ramayana (Yuddhakanda) describes the Agnipareeksha or 'Fire ordeal' undergone by Sitadevi after death of Ravanaasura. Bhagavan Sri Rama, informs Sita that he has released her from her bondage from Ravanaasura and that she is free to go to the place of her choice. Unable to bear the thought of going anywhere else other than being with her husband Rama, she choses to enter the fire. Agni proving Sita's chastity returns her back to Sri Rama. There are different versions to this event, however, the role of Agni is as a witness to all deeds and as a purifier has been significant throughout different eras.

=== शिबिचक्रवर्तिः ॥ Shibi Chakravarty ===
Shibi (Usheenara) Chakravarthy, belonging to the Ikshvaku dynasty, the ancestor of Bhagavan Sri Rama, was famous for his righteousness and charity. Indradeva who wanted to test his daatrutvam (sense of charity), assumed the form of an eagle and Agnideva assumed the form of a dove who was a prey to the eagle. The dove takes sharanagati or refuge in Shibi Charavarty, who then offered an equal weight of his own flesh to the eagle in exchange of dove's life. Assuming the dove to weigh a little, Shibi offered a portion of his flesh, but soon he had to offer himself as the food to the eagle. Shibi's sacrifice for the bird was highly praised and both Agni and Indra offered him a place in the heavens in return (Mahabharata, Vanaparva Chapter 131).

== Ayurvedic Perspective ==
Agni is an important vital entity in Ayurveda. Agni is the indispensable agent involved in the process of Paaka (Digestion and transformation). Different Ayurvedic texts mention that Agni is Pitta, one of the tridoshas of the human body, which are vaata, pitta and kapha. Different texts mention different numbers of Agni present in the body, however according to the function and site of action there are 13 in number - 1 Jatharagni, 5 Bhutagnis and 7 Dhatvaagni.

Jataraagni, the most important, aids in digestion of four types of food and transforms it into Rasa and Mala (waste and toxins), thus converting the gross matter to subtle substance thereby providing energy for body's needs.

Ayurveda also defines three types of Agni based on the digestion types and Doshas (Vata, Pitta, Kapha) - Vishaamgni, Teekshanagni, Mandaagni. Samaagni is a state of balanced Agni of the body.

== References ==
# The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore
# http://ignca.nic.in/Vedic_portal_rigveda_shakala_Samhita_m01.htm Agni Sukta as given in Vedic heritage portal with pronunciation.
# https://ia802606.us.archive.org/17/items/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft.pdf
# https://www.swami-krishnananda.org/essay/essay_1.html
# http://ignca.nic.in/vedic_portal_yajurveda_shukla_kanva_isavasyopanisad01.htm
# Ganganatha, Jha. (1923). ''The Chandogya Upanishad and Sri Sankara's Commentary'', Fourth Volume, Madras: The India Printing Works
# https://archive.org/details/Mahabharata04SanskritHindiPanditRamnarayanGitaPress
# Mahabharata Vana parva (Chap 131) https://archive.org/stream/Mahabharata04SanskritHindiPanditRamnarayanGitaPress/Mahabharata%2002_%20Sanskrit-Hindi_Pandit%20Ramnarayan_Gita%20Press#page/n417/mode/2up
# Valmiki Ramayana (Balakanda) http://valmikiramayan.net/utf8/vr_index.htm
# Agni Types - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3221079/

Samhita (संहिता)

2017-09-11T08:56:42Z

P16232:

Samhita (Sanskrit: सम्हिता, ''{{IAST|saṁhitā}}'') literally means "put together, joined" and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses". Samhita has been used as a synonym for Vedas and hence used in exchange for each other. '''Though many western scholars, not unanimously though, have dated the Vedas to several thousands of years ago, till date many scholars and followers of Sanatana Dharma believe in the agelessness and timelessness of these ancient texts.'''

The Samhitas are considered to be basic revealed texts. These are recited in chain like arrangements of words, with no break, no punctuation, and order not be disturbed by arbitrary human meddling. A collective study of Vedas and later text suggests that the compendium of ''Samhitas'' and associated Vedic texts were far larger than currently available. However, most have been lost at some point or over a period of Indian history.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The [[Vedas]] have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]], the [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] and the [[Upanishads]]. The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).The [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] and [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the ''Gyan''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.

Another learned author says: These are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.

''Samhita'' also refers to the most ancient layer of text in the [[Veda|Vedas]], consisting of [[Mantra|mantras]] and slokas (a group of mantras or verses).

== व्युत्पत्तिः || Etymology ==
''Samhita'' is a Sanskrit word from the roots, sam (सं) and hita (हित), which mean "correct, proper" and "wholesome, arranged" respectively. The combination word thus means "put together , joined, compose, arrangement, place together, union" and "combination of letters according to euphonic rules, any methodically arranged collection of texts or verses".

== Four Samhitas ==
The Samhitas form the first part of each of the Vedas. A Samhita is a collection of mantras, so the Samhitas are sometimes also referred to as the ‘mantras’. Most of the mantras were concerned with the nature and the deities. Generally, the mantras are addressed to the Gods and Goddesses.

The Samhitas are named after the Vedas they belong to. For example, the Samhita of the Rig Veda is called the Rig-Veda-Samhita or the Rig-Samhita. The Rig-Samhita contains the mantras known as ‘rks’, while those of Yajur veda are called 'yajus', Sama Veda mantras are called 'saman'. These mantras are structured metered verses in Rig veda while prose form is seen in Yajurveda mantras.

=== Rig Samhita ===
The Rigveda is the oldest, biggest of the four Vedas and the most highly valued work of the Hindus. This Samhita (Collection) is unique in its nature. The present form of this Samhita clearly indicates that the collection is not a single work, but consists of multiple elements, thus, intact through thousands of years are the seeds of India's religious and philosophical development. Various indications of language, style and ideas prove this point.

Different mantras of this Samhita were composed long before they were systematically arranged. Being a compilation of different stages, there is something which stamps the Rigveda with an individuality of its own. It is much more natural in character and form than other Samhitas.

''Rik,'' from the root ''rc'' means ‘to praise''’.'' Variously called as 'rk', 'richas', 'rig' or '''Rik''<nowiki/>' is the name given to those Mantras which are meant for the praise of the deities. Thus the collection (''Samhita'') of ''Riks'' is known as Rigveda-Samhita.
* Only one Shaka (school) of the Rigveda is available today called as '''Shaakala'''. The Purāṇa literature gives ample information about the existence of Śākhā-Saṁhitās. Deviations in text, order and number of ṛk mantras started giving rise to different Śākhā-Saṁhitās from the time of Ācārya Paila; Patañjali referring to twenty one Śākhā-Saṁhitās of the Ṛgveda (Ref 2) the Āśvalāyana-Saṁhitā being one of them.
* It contains about 10,552 Mantras (about 10, 170 rks according to some other scholars) and 1, 028 suktas.
* It is classified into ten books called ''Mandalas''.
* Each ''Mandala'' is divided into several sections called ''Anuvakas''.
* Each ''Anuvaka'' consists of a number of S''uktas'' (hymns).
* Each ''Sukta'' is made up of a number of Mantras (verses) called ''riks''.
* Every ''Rik'' has a ''Rishi (Mantra Drashta),'' a ''Devata (deity)'' and a ''Chandas (meter)''.
* Mantras are revealed to several rishis called Mantra Drashtas including some brahmavaadinis like Lopamudra and Vak Ambhrni.
* The Samhita of the Rigveda thus comprises of 10 ''Mandalas'', 85 ''Anuvakas'', 1028 ''Suktas'' and 10552 ''Mantras''. Usually ''Anuvaka'' is not mentioned for the reference of a Mantra of the Rigveda. For example RV 3.16.7 simply means the seventh Mantra of the sixteenth ''Sukta'' of the third ''Mandala'' of the Rigveda.
* It begins with a sukta to Agni and concludes with a sukta to the same deity. Agni sukta (01.01.01) by Rushi : Madhucchanda Visvamitra, Devata : Agni, Chandas: Gayatri goes as follows
<blockquote>"
''अग्निसूक्तम् in प्रथमं मण्डलम्।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''९ मधुच्छन्दा वैश्वामित्रः । अग्निः। गायत्री।'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निमी॑ळे पु॒रोहि॑तं य॒ज्ञस्य॑ दे॒वमृ॒त्विज॑म् । होता॑रं रत्न॒धात॑मम् ॥१''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निः पूर्वे॑भि॒र्ऋषि॑भि॒रीड्यो॒ नूत॑नैरु॒त । स दे॒वाँ एह व॑क्षति ॥२''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निना॑ र॒यिम॑श्नव॒त् पोष॑मे॒व दि॒वेदि॑वे । य॒शसं॑ वी॒रव॑त्तमम् ॥३''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अग्ने॒ यं य॒ज्ञम॑ध्व॒रं वि॒श्वत॑: परि॒भूरसि॑ । स इद् दे॒वेषु॑ गच्छति ॥४''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निर्होता॑ क॒विक्र॑तुः स॒त्यश्चि॒त्रश्र॑वस्तमः । दे॒वो दे॒वेभि॒रा ग॑मत् ॥५''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''यद॒ङ्ग दा॒शुषे॒ त्वमग्ने॑ भ॒द्रं क॑रि॒ष्यसि॑ । तवेत् तत् स॒त्यम॑ङ्गिरः ॥६''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''उप॑ त्वाग्ने दि॒वेदि॑वे॒ दोषा॑वस्तर्धि॒या व॒यम् । नमो॒ भर॑न्त॒ एम॑सि ॥७''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''राज॑न्तमध्व॒राणां॑ गो॒पामृ॒तस्य॒ दीदि॑विम् । वर्ध॑मानं॒ स्वे दमे॑ ॥८''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स न॑: पि॒तेव॑ सू॒नवे ऽग्ने॑ सूपाय॒नो भ॑व । सच॑स्वा नः स्व॒स्तये॑ ॥९''"</blockquote>As seen in the above example, the Vedic mantras are notated with lines above and below the letters which indicate the svara or tone of the particular letter in which it has to be uttered. The information about Vedic Language, the tones and accents used are explained in Siksha part of the [[Shad Vedaangas (षड् वेदाङ्ग)|Vedaangas]]. This division of the Rigveda is most popular and systematic. There is also the ashtaka system of dividing the contents of the Rigveda, but today that is uncommon among the students of the Veda.The value of the Rigveda today is not confined to India, for its well-preserved language and mythology have helped a better understanding of languages, literatures and cultures of the whole world.

The concluding sukta of the Rgveda (10.191) also has Agni as Devata and should be regarded as having a higher significance than the national anthem of any country: it is a prayer for amity among all nations, a true international anthem. Rushi : Samvanana Angirasa, Devata : Agni, Chandas: Anusthub and Tristubh<blockquote>"
''संगठन सूक्त''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''४ संवनन आङ्गिरसः। १ अग्निः,२-४ संज्ञानम्। अनुष्टुप्, ३ त्रिष्टुप्।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''संस॒मिद्यु॑वसे वृष॒न्नग्ने॒ विश्वा॑न्य॒र्य आ । इ॒ळस्प॒दे समि॑ध्यसे॒ स नो॒ वसू॒न्या भ॑र ॥१''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''सं ग॑च्छध्वं॒ सं व॑दध्वं॒ सं वो॒ मनां॑सि जानताम् । दे॒वा भा॒गं यथा॒ पूर्वे॑ संजाना॒ना उ॒पास॑ते ॥२''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स॒मा॒नो मन्त्र॒: समि॑तिः समा॒नी स॑मा॒नं मन॑: स॒ह चि॒त्तमे॑षाम् । स॒मा॒नं मन्त्र॑म॒भि म॑न्त्रये वः समा॒नेन॑ वो ह॒विषा॑ जुहोमि ॥३''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४''"</blockquote>Meaning : "May mankind be of one mind, " it goes. "May it have a common goal. May all hearts be united in love. And with the mind and the goal being one may all of us live in happiness".

Among the 1028 ''Suktas'' of the Rigveda Samhita some ''suktas'' are very popular and frequently referred by the readers of Vedas. Some of them are:

1. Purusha Sukta

2. Hiranya-garbha Sukta

3. Dhana-anna-dana Sukta

4. Aksha Sukta

5. [[नासदीय सूक्त|Nasadiya Sukta]]

6. Duhsvapna-nashna Sukta

7. Yama-yami-samvada Sukta

Besides this, there are ''Suktas'' offered to different deities, such as, Indra, Marut, Rudra, Varuna, Ushas, Surya, Bhumi, Soma, and Agni.

=== Yajus Samhita ===
In its character Yajurveda is quite different from the Rigveda & Samaveda Samhitas. It is principally in prose form. The word '<nowiki/>''Yajush''<nowiki/>' in the Yajurveda is explained variously. But one of its definitions says -<blockquote>"
'<nowiki/>''Gadyatmakam yajuh''<nowiki/>' A ‘''Yajuh''’ is that which is in prose form'. "</blockquote>Another definition – <blockquote>"
‘''Yajur Yajateh''’ "</blockquote>talks about its relation with the sacrifice (''Yajna'') because both the terms are derived from the root. '''Yaj'' '.
* The Yajurveda is a ritual Veda for it is essentially a guide-book for the Adhvaryu priest who had to do practically all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. His works vary from the selection of a plot of land for the sacrificial altar down to offering oblations to the sacred fires. Just as the Samaveda-Samhita is the song-book of the ''Udgata'' priest, so the Yajurveda-Samhitas are the mantra-books for the ''Adhvaryu'' priest. It is solely meant for the purposes of sacrificial rituals.
* The Yajurveda is also important for its presentation of philosophical doctrines. It preaches the concept of ''Prana'' and ''Manas'' also. Many times, it is quoted for depicting religious and social life of the Vedic people. It is also known for giving certain geographical data.
* The Yajurveda is two-fold- 1. The Shukla Yajurveda 2. The Krishna Yajurveda
* The Krishna Yajurveda is characterised by a mixture of mantra and brahmana whereas the Shukla Yajurveda maintains the clear separation of the two.
* The Shukla Yajurveda is related with the Aditya-school and the Krishna Yajurveda is related with the Brahma-school.
* Origin of Two Shakas: Rishi Vaishampayana taught the Yajurveda to Rishi Yajnavalkya and other pupils. Once Vaishampayana got angry with Yajyavalkya and asked him to give up what he had learnt. Then Yajyavalkya prayed to the Sun, who came to him in the form of a horse i.e. ''Vaji'') and preached him the Veda. Hence this Shukla Yajurveda was also named Vajasaneyi.
* Shukla Yajurveda has two samhitas : '''Maadhyandina and Kanva'''
* Krishna yajurveda has four Samhitas : '''मैत्रायणि || Maitrayani, कथा || Katha, कपिस्थल-कथा || Kapisthala-Katha, तैत्रिय || Taittiriya'''
* The Vajasaneyi-Samhita gives a vivid description of many important sacrifices such as - Darsha-purnamasa, Somayaga, Chaturmasya, Agnihotra, Vajapeya, Ashvamedha, Sarva-medha, Brahma-yajna, Pitrimedha, Sautramani, and so on. For a general idea the contents can be divided into three sections. The first section comprises the ''Darshapurnamasa'', the second section deals with the ''Somayaga'' and the third section comprises the ''Agnicayanas''. The last section of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita contains the popular Ishavasya-Upanishad.

=== Sama samhita ===
The SamaSamhita contains mantras in the form of songs meant for liturgy or public worship. The Samaveda is shortest of all the four Vedas. It is closely connected with the Rigveda. It is important to note that the Samhita of the Samaveda is an independent collection (Samhita), yet it has taken many verses, a large number indeed, from the Samhita of Rigveda. These verses are chiefly derived from the eighth and the ninth Mandalas of the Rigveda.
* The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.
* The Samaveda is compiled exclusively for ritual application, for its verses are all meant to be chanted at the ceremonies of the Soma-sacrifice and procedures derived from it. The Samaveda is, therefore, specially intended for the ''Udagatr'' priest.
* The Samaveda samhita comprises two major parts. The first part include four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक). The Archika is also separated in two. - the Purvarcika, and the Uttararcika.
* Its stanzas assume their proper character of musical ''samans'' or chants only in the various song-books called ''Ganas''. According to the Jaiminiya Sutra - 'Melody is called Saman.'
* Saama Gana or singing of hymns as per the rules of Sama Veda is said to be the basis and source of the seven svaras or notes fundamental to the Indian music systems.
* According to the ancient tradition, told by Patanjali, the Samaveda had 1000 ''Shakhas''. But at present there are only three Shakas. These are – '''(1) Kauthuma, (2) Jaiminiya, (3)Ranayaniya.'''
* Famous Chandogya Upanishad belongs to this veda.
Traditional the Vedas are spoken as''<nowiki/>'Trayi''<nowiki/>', because thay are composed of three kinds in mantras- Rcs or verses, Yajus or prose, Saman or chants.

Among the four Vedas, the Samaveda is regarded as the foremost. In the Bhagavadgata, where Lord Krishna has declared "Among the Vedas I am Samaveda"-''Vedanama Samavedosmi'' (Gita, 10.22). Here Indra, Agni and Soma deities are mainly invoked and praised but most of the time these prayers seem to be the invocations for the Supreme Being. In the spiritual sense Soma represents All-pervading, Glorious Lord and Brahman, who is attainable only through devotion and musical chanting.

Thus major theme of the Samaveda can be regarded as worship and devotion (''Upasana'').

=== Atharva Samhita ===
The Atharva-Samhita contains mantras meant for routine rites and rituals. ''Atharvan'' denotes directions and mantras especially in connection to ward off evil and hardship and also contains philosophical thoughts. '''Atharvan''<nowiki/>' originally means 'priest' and the Mantras in the Atharvaveda-Samhita were brought to light by Rishi Atharva.
* According to Patanjali, Atharvaveda had nine Shakhas, but the Samhita of the Atharvaveda is today available only in two rescensions - '''the Shaunaka and the Paippalada'''.
* It is the Shaunaka-Samhita that is frequently meant when the Atharvaveda is mentioned in ancient and modern literature. It is a collection of 730 hymns containing 5987 Mantras, divided into 20 books (''Kandas''). Some 1200 verses are derived from the Rigveda. About one sixth of the text of the Atharvaveda including two entire books (15 and 16) is written in prose, similar in style and language to the Brahmanas, the rest of the text is in poetic verses.
* The Atharvaveda is the oldest literary monument of Indian medicine. It is believed to be the origin of Ayurveda, the Indian science of medicine.
* There are a series of Mantras related to cure various physical and mental diseases. Another class of hymns includes prayers for protection from the bite of snakes or injurious insects. We find mention and application of medicines and medicinal herbs. This feature distinguishes the Atharvaveda from the rest of the Vedas.
* It contains numerous Mantras, which according to their subject-matter, can be broadly divided into three categories: 1. Related to the cure of diseases and destruction of adverse forces. 2. Related to establish peace, protection, health, wealth, friendship and long life. 3. Related to the nature of Supreme Reality, time, death and immortality.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati made extraordinary efforts to bring out the significance of the mantras of the Vedas. Shri Aurobindo also challenged the Western philosophers and opined that the mantras are found to express esoteric truths which the Westerners can not grasp. He strove hard to elucidate the cryptic meanings of the Vedic words and the hymns.

== Famous Examples ==

=== Rig veda ===
The [[Gayatri mantra]] is among the famous Hindu mantras. It is found in Rig Veda Samhita.
:: ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात् (Rig Veda 3.62.10)
:: ''Oṁ Bhūr Bhuva~Swah', Tat savitur varenyam, Bhargo devasya dhīmahi, Dhiyo yo nah prachodayāt (Rig Veda 3.62.10)''
:: Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine Light (Sun). May he inspire our thoughts, stimulate our understandings.

== References ==
# Narayanacharya, K S. (2006). ''Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad''. Mysore : Kautilya Institute of National Studies.
# Bhattacharya, A. (2006). ''Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology.'' United States : iUniverse.
# http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm
# [http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda/rv01-001.pdf ''Rigveda Samhita, First Mandala (in Sanskrit).'']
# Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi MahaSwamiji. (). ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap27.htm Hindu Dharma, Part 5 ,Chapter 27].'' Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
# ''[http://ignca.nic.in/vedic_portal_rigveda.htm Rigveda Samhita,Overview.]''

Samhita (संहिता)

2017-09-11T08:49:59Z

P16232:

Samhita (Sanskrit: सम्हिता, ''{{IAST|saṁhitā}}'') literally means "put together, joined" and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses".

Samhita has been used as a synonym for Vedas and hence used in exchange for each other. Though many western scholars, not unanimously though, have dated the Vedas to several thousands of years ago, till date many scholars and followers of Sanatana Dharma believe in the agelessness and timelessness of these ancient texts.

The Samhitas are considered to be basic revealed texts. These are recited in chain like arrangements of words, with no break, no punctuation, and order not be disturbed by arbitrary human meddling. A collective study of Vedas and later text suggests that the compendium of ''Samhitas'' and associated Vedic texts were far larger than currently available. However, most have been lost at some point or over a period of Indian history.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
The [[Vedas]] have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]], the [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] and the [[Upanishads]]. The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).The [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] and [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the ''Gyan''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.

Another learned author says: These are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.

''Samhita'' also refers to the most ancient layer of text in the [[Veda|Vedas]], consisting of [[Mantra|mantras]] and slokas (a group of mantras or verses).

== व्युत्पत्तिः || Etymology ==
''Samhita'' is a Sanskrit word from the roots, sam (सं) and hita (हित), which mean "correct, proper" and "wholesome, arranged" respectively. The combination word thus means "put together , joined, compose, arrangement, place together, union" and "combination of letters according to euphonic rules, any methodically arranged collection of texts or verses".

== Four Samhitas ==
The Samhitas form the first part of each of the Vedas. A Samhita is a collection of mantras, so the Samhitas are sometimes also referred to as the ‘mantras’. Most of the mantras were concerned with the nature and the deities. Generally, the mantras are addressed to the Gods and Goddesses.

The Samhitas are named after the Vedas they belong to. For example, the Samhita of the Rig Veda is called the Rig-Veda-Samhita or the Rig-Samhita. The Rig-Samhita contains the mantras known as ‘rks’, while those of Yajur veda are called 'yajus', Sama Veda mantras are called 'saman'. These mantras are structured metered verses in Rig veda while prose form is seen in Yajurveda mantras.

=== Rig Samhita ===
The Rigveda is the oldest, biggest of the four Vedas and the most highly valued work of the Hindus. This Samhita (Collection) is unique in its nature. The present form of this Samhita clearly indicates that the collection is not a single work, but consists of multiple elements, thus, intact through thousands of years are the seeds of India's religious and philosophical development. Various indications of language, style and ideas prove this point.

Different mantras of this Samhita were composed long before they were systematically arranged. Being a compilation of different stages, there is something which stamps the Rigveda with an individuality of its own. It is much more natural in character and form than other Samhitas.

''Rik,'' from the root ''rc'' means ‘to praise''’.'' Variously called as 'rk', 'richas', 'rig' or '''Rik''<nowiki/>' is the name given to those Mantras which are meant for the praise of the deities. Thus the collection (''Samhita'') of ''Riks'' is known as Rigveda-Samhita.
* Only one Shaka (school) of the Rigveda is available today called as '''Shaakala'''. The Purāṇa literature gives ample information about the existence of Śākhā-Saṁhitās. Deviations in text, order and number of ṛk mantras started giving rise to different Śākhā-Saṁhitās from the time of Ācārya Paila; Patañjali referring to twenty one Śākhā-Saṁhitās of the Ṛgveda (Ref 2) the Āśvalāyana-Saṁhitā being one of them.
* It contains about 10,552 Mantras (about 10, 170 rks according to some other scholars) and 1, 028 suktas.
* It is classified into ten books called ''Mandalas''.
* Each ''Mandala'' is divided into several sections called ''Anuvakas''.
* Each ''Anuvaka'' consists of a number of S''uktas'' (hymns).
* Each ''Sukta'' is made up of a number of Mantras (verses) called ''riks''.
* Every ''Rik'' has a ''Rishi (Mantra Drashta),'' a ''Devata (deity)'' and a ''Chandas (meter)''.
* Mantras are revealed to several rishis called Mantra Drashtas including some brahmavaadinis like Lopamudra and Vak Ambhrni.
* The Samhita of the Rigveda thus comprises of 10 ''Mandalas'', 85 ''Anuvakas'', 1028 ''Suktas'' and 10552 ''Mantras''. Usually ''Anuvaka'' is not mentioned for the reference of a Mantra of the Rigveda. For example RV 3.16.7 simply means the seventh Mantra of the sixteenth ''Sukta'' of the third ''Mandala'' of the Rigveda.
* It begins with a sukta to Agni and concludes with a sukta to the same deity. Agni sukta (01.01.01) by Rushi : Madhucchanda Visvamitra, Devata : Agni, Chandas: Gayatri goes as follows
<blockquote>"
''अग्निसूक्तम् in प्रथमं मण्डलम्।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''९ मधुच्छन्दा वैश्वामित्रः । अग्निः। गायत्री।'' "</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निमी॑ळे पु॒रोहि॑तं य॒ज्ञस्य॑ दे॒वमृ॒त्विज॑म् । होता॑रं रत्न॒धात॑मम् ॥१''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निः पूर्वे॑भि॒र्ऋषि॑भि॒रीड्यो॒ नूत॑नैरु॒त । स दे॒वाँ एह व॑क्षति ॥२''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निना॑ र॒यिम॑श्नव॒त् पोष॑मे॒व दि॒वेदि॑वे । य॒शसं॑ वी॒रव॑त्तमम् ॥३''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अग्ने॒ यं य॒ज्ञम॑ध्व॒रं वि॒श्वत॑: परि॒भूरसि॑ । स इद् दे॒वेषु॑ गच्छति ॥४''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''अ॒ग्निर्होता॑ क॒विक्र॑तुः स॒त्यश्चि॒त्रश्र॑वस्तमः । दे॒वो दे॒वेभि॒रा ग॑मत् ॥५''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''यद॒ङ्ग दा॒शुषे॒ त्वमग्ने॑ भ॒द्रं क॑रि॒ष्यसि॑ । तवेत् तत् स॒त्यम॑ङ्गिरः ॥६''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''उप॑ त्वाग्ने दि॒वेदि॑वे॒ दोषा॑वस्तर्धि॒या व॒यम् । नमो॒ भर॑न्त॒ एम॑सि ॥७''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''राज॑न्तमध्व॒राणां॑ गो॒पामृ॒तस्य॒ दीदि॑विम् । वर्ध॑मानं॒ स्वे दमे॑ ॥८''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स न॑: पि॒तेव॑ सू॒नवे ऽग्ने॑ सूपाय॒नो भ॑व । सच॑स्वा नः स्व॒स्तये॑ ॥९''"</blockquote>As seen in the above example, the Vedic mantras are notated with lines above and below the letters which indicate the svara or tone of the particular letter in which it has to be uttered. The information about Vedic Language, the tones and accents used are explained in Siksha part of the [[Shad Vedaangas (षड् वेदाङ्ग)|Vedaangas]]. This division of the Rigveda is most popular and systematic. There is also the ashtaka system of dividing the contents of the Rigveda, but today that is uncommon among the students of the Veda.The value of the Rigveda today is not confined to India, for its well-preserved language and mythology have helped a better understanding of languages, literatures and cultures of the whole world.

The concluding sukta of the Rgveda (10.191) also has Agni as Devata and should be regarded as having a higher significance than the national anthem of any country: it is a prayer for amity among all nations, a true international anthem. Rushi : Samvanana Angirasa, Devata : Agni, Chandas: Anusthub and Tristubh<blockquote>"
''संगठन सूक्त''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''४ संवनन आङ्गिरसः। १ अग्निः,२-४ संज्ञानम्। अनुष्टुप्, ३ त्रिष्टुप्।''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''संस॒मिद्यु॑वसे वृष॒न्नग्ने॒ विश्वा॑न्य॒र्य आ । इ॒ळस्प॒दे समि॑ध्यसे॒ स नो॒ वसू॒न्या भ॑र ॥१''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''सं ग॑च्छध्वं॒ सं व॑दध्वं॒ सं वो॒ मनां॑सि जानताम् । दे॒वा भा॒गं यथा॒ पूर्वे॑ संजाना॒ना उ॒पास॑ते ॥२''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स॒मा॒नो मन्त्र॒: समि॑तिः समा॒नी स॑मा॒नं मन॑: स॒ह चि॒त्तमे॑षाम् । स॒मा॒नं मन्त्र॑म॒भि म॑न्त्रये वः समा॒नेन॑ वो ह॒विषा॑ जुहोमि ॥३''"</blockquote><blockquote>"
''स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४''"</blockquote>Meaning : "May mankind be of one mind, " it goes. "May it have a common goal. May all hearts be united in love. And with the mind and the goal being one may all of us live in happiness".

Among the 1028 ''Suktas'' of the Rigveda Samhita some ''suktas'' are very popular and frequently referred by the readers of Vedas. Some of them are:

1. Purusha Sukta

2. Hiranya-garbha Sukta

3. Dhana-anna-dana Sukta

4. Aksha Sukta

5. [[नासदीय सूक्त|Nasadiya Sukta]]

6. Duhsvapna-nashna Sukta

7. Yama-yami-samvada Sukta

Besides this, there are ''Suktas'' offered to different deities, such as, Indra, Marut, Rudra, Varuna, Ushas, Surya, Bhumi, Soma, and Agni.

=== Yajus Samhita ===
In its character Yajurveda is quite different from the Rigveda & Samaveda Samhitas. It is principally in prose form. The word '<nowiki/>''Yajush''<nowiki/>' in the Yajurveda is explained variously. But one of its definitions says -<blockquote>"
'<nowiki/>''Gadyatmakam yajuh''<nowiki/>' A ‘''Yajuh''’ is that which is in prose form'. "</blockquote>Another definition – <blockquote>"
‘''Yajur Yajateh''’ "</blockquote>talks about its relation with the sacrifice (''Yajna'') because both the terms are derived from the root. '''Yaj'' '.
* The Yajurveda is a ritual Veda for it is essentially a guide-book for the Adhvaryu priest who had to do practically all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. His works vary from the selection of a plot of land for the sacrificial altar down to offering oblations to the sacred fires. Just as the Samaveda-Samhita is the song-book of the ''Udgata'' priest, so the Yajurveda-Samhitas are the mantra-books for the ''Adhvaryu'' priest. It is solely meant for the purposes of sacrificial rituals.
* The Yajurveda is also important for its presentation of philosophical doctrines. It preaches the concept of ''Prana'' and ''Manas'' also. Many times, it is quoted for depicting religious and social life of the Vedic people. It is also known for giving certain geographical data.
* The Yajurveda is two-fold- 1. The Shukla Yajurveda 2. The Krishna Yajurveda
* The Krishna Yajurveda is characterised by a mixture of mantra and brahmana whereas the Shukla Yajurveda maintains the clear separation of the two.
* The Shukla Yajurveda is related with the Aditya-school and the Krishna Yajurveda is related with the Brahma-school.
* Origin of Two Shakas: Rishi Vaishampayana taught the Yajurveda to Rishi Yajnavalkya and other pupils. Once Vaishampayana got angry with Yajyavalkya and asked him to give up what he had learnt. Then Yajyavalkya prayed to the Sun, who came to him in the form of a horse i.e. ''Vaji'') and preached him the Veda. Hence this Shukla Yajurveda was also named Vajasaneyi.
* Shukla Yajurveda has two samhitas : '''Maadhyandina and Kanva'''
* Krishna yajurveda has four Samhitas : '''मैत्रायणि || Maitrayani, कथा || Katha, कपिस्थल-कथा || Kapisthala-Katha, तैत्रिय || Taittiriya'''
* The Vajasaneyi-Samhita gives a vivid description of many important sacrifices such as - Darsha-purnamasa, Somayaga, Chaturmasya, Agnihotra, Vajapeya, Ashvamedha, Sarva-medha, Brahma-yajna, Pitrimedha, Sautramani, and so on. For a general idea the contents can be divided into three sections. The first section comprises the ''Darshapurnamasa'', the second section deals with the ''Somayaga'' and the third section comprises the ''Agnicayanas''. The last section of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita contains the popular Ishavasya-Upanishad.

=== Sama samhita ===
The SamaSamhita contains mantras in the form of songs meant for liturgy or public worship. The Samaveda is shortest of all the four Vedas. It is closely connected with the Rigveda. It is important to note that the Samhita of the Samaveda is an independent collection (Samhita), yet it has taken many verses, a large number indeed, from the Samhita of Rigveda. These verses are chiefly derived from the eighth and the ninth Mandalas of the Rigveda.
* The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.
* The Samaveda is compiled exclusively for ritual application, for its verses are all meant to be chanted at the ceremonies of the Soma-sacrifice and procedures derived from it. The Samaveda is, therefore, specially intended for the ''Udagatr'' priest.
* The Samaveda samhita comprises two major parts. The first part include four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक). The Archika is also separated in two. - the Purvarcika, and the Uttararcika.
* Its stanzas assume their proper character of musical ''samans'' or chants only in the various song-books called ''Ganas''. According to the Jaiminiya Sutra - 'Melody is called Saman.'
* Saama Gana or singing of hymns as per the rules of Sama Veda is said to be the basis and source of the seven svaras or notes fundamental to the Indian music systems.
* According to the ancient tradition, told by Patanjali, the Samaveda had 1000 ''Shakhas''. But at present there are only three Shakas. These are – '''(1) Kauthuma, (2) Jaiminiya, (3)Ranayaniya.'''
* Famous Chandogya Upanishad belongs to this veda.
Traditional the Vedas are spoken as''<nowiki/>'Trayi''<nowiki/>', because thay are composed of three kinds in mantras- Rcs or verses, Yajus or prose, Saman or chants.

Among the four Vedas, the Samaveda is regarded as the foremost. In the Bhagavadgata, where Lord Krishna has declared "Among the Vedas I am Samaveda"-''Vedanama Samavedosmi'' (Gita, 10.22). Here Indra, Agni and Soma deities are mainly invoked and praised but most of the time these prayers seem to be the invocations for the Supreme Being. In the spiritual sense Soma represents All-pervading, Glorious Lord and Brahman, who is attainable only through devotion and musical chanting.

Thus major theme of the Samaveda can be regarded as worship and devotion (''Upasana'').

=== Atharva Samhita ===
The Atharva-Samhita contains mantras meant for routine rites and rituals. ''Atharvan'' denotes directions and mantras especially in connection to ward off evil and hardship and also contains philosophical thoughts. '''Atharvan''<nowiki/>' originally means 'priest' and the Mantras in the Atharvaveda-Samhita were brought to light by Rishi Atharva.
* According to Patanjali, Atharvaveda had nine Shakhas, but the Samhita of the Atharvaveda is today available only in two rescensions - '''the Shaunaka and the Paippalada'''.
* It is the Shaunaka-Samhita that is frequently meant when the Atharvaveda is mentioned in ancient and modern literature. It is a collection of 730 hymns containing 5987 Mantras, divided into 20 books (''Kandas''). Some 1200 verses are derived from the Rigveda. About one sixth of the text of the Atharvaveda including two entire books (15 and 16) is written in prose, similar in style and language to the Brahmanas, the rest of the text is in poetic verses.
* The Atharvaveda is the oldest literary monument of Indian medicine. It is believed to be the origin of Ayurveda, the Indian science of medicine.
* There are a series of Mantras related to cure various physical and mental diseases. Another class of hymns includes prayers for protection from the bite of snakes or injurious insects. We find mention and application of medicines and medicinal herbs. This feature distinguishes the Atharvaveda from the rest of the Vedas.
* It contains numerous Mantras, which according to their subject-matter, can be broadly divided into three categories: 1. Related to the cure of diseases and destruction of adverse forces. 2. Related to establish peace, protection, health, wealth, friendship and long life. 3. Related to the nature of Supreme Reality, time, death and immortality.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati made extraordinary efforts to bring out the significance of the mantras of the Vedas. Shri Aurobindo also challenged the Western philosophers and opined that the mantras are found to express esoteric truths which the Westerners can not grasp. He strove hard to elucidate the cryptic meanings of the Vedic words and the hymns.

== Famous Examples ==

=== Rig veda ===
The [[Gayatri mantra]] is among the famous Hindu mantras. It is found in Rig Veda Samhita.
:: ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात् (Rig Veda 3.62.10)
:: ''Oṁ Bhūr Bhuva~Swah', Tat savitur varenyam, Bhargo devasya dhīmahi, Dhiyo yo nah prachodayāt (Rig Veda 3.62.10)''
:: Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine Light (Sun). May he inspire our thoughts, stimulate our understandings.

== References ==
# Narayanacharya, K S. (2006). ''Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad''. Mysore : Kautilya Institute of National Studies.
# Bhattacharya, A. (2006). ''Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology.'' United States : iUniverse.
# http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm
# [http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda/rv01-001.pdf ''Rigveda Samhita, First Mandala (in Sanskrit).'']
# Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi MahaSwamiji. (). ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap27.htm Hindu Dharma, Part 5 ,Chapter 27].'' Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
# ''[http://ignca.nic.in/vedic_portal_rigveda.htm Rigveda Samhita,Overview.]''

Uma Shankara Samvada (उमाशङ्करयोः संवादः)

2017-09-07T15:34:38Z

P16232: /* Yagya of the grihasthas */

== Uma-Sankara Samvada ==
There arises many an occasion in Indian classical literature to celebrate the centrality of the grhasthasrama amongst the four ashramas, the four stages of life that an Indian is expected to follow sequentially in a lifetime. One of the most attractive statements of this centrality occurs in the Anusasana parva of Mahabharata, where Bhishma narrates how in earlier times Sri Krishna undertakes great austerities on the Himalayas and an episode that occurs one day during the practice of these austerities. The great Rishis have assembled and at the urging of the tapasvin Sri Krishna, Narada begins to recall a long discussion on different aspects of dharma that takes place between Sankara and Uma. Both are living the life of a happy man and wife on the Himalayas, which in the presence of the divine couple joyously blossoms with natural splendour and beauty. Narada recounts this episode, <blockquote>''Once Uma, standing behind Sankara, playfully covers his eyes with her hands. Instantly the whole world is enveloped in deep darkness. Soon Sankara opens his third-eye that bathes the world in its brilliant gaze. But the Himalayas, unable to bear the sun-like radiance of Sankara's third-eye, catch fire. And Uma, filled with compassion for the Himalayas, appears in front of Sankara with folded hands. Seeing her thus, Sankara recovers his benign tranquility. He looks at the world with a happy gaze. And the world becomes happy too.''</blockquote>It is then that Uma begins to ask Sankara various questions about the meaning of his forms and that of the various aspects of dharma. In the course of this dialogue between the divine husband and wife, Uma also seeks to know the dharma of ashramas, of the way a man ought to lead his life at different stages during a lifetime. And, Sankara begins his answer to Uma's queries with the unequivocal assertion that of the four asramas the grhasthasrama is indeed the foremost:<blockquote>'''Put down sanskrit'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''grhasthah pravarstesam grhasthyam dharmamasritah''' (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5922).</blockquote>Sankara then briefly describes the discipline of the four asramas, but his heart seems to be in describing the grhathasramadharma for Uma. Dealing with vanaprasthasrama, the discipline of the forest-dweller, and the sannyasasrama, the discipline of the renouncer, in just six and a half verses, Sankara soon returns to a very detailed description of the grhasthasrama. And the core of the discipline of grhastha that Sankara describes is in looking after and generously providing for the sustenance of all, and especially of the guests who arrive at the door of the householder. This opportunity to look after and sustain others is what makes the grhasthasrama so great that, as Sankara says, the severest austerities of vanaprasthasrama cannot measure up to even the one-sixteenth part of the merit acquired by properly fulfilled grhasthasrama:
samyak tapascarantiha sraddadhana vanasrame grhasramasya te devi aldm ndrhanti sodasim? (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5923)

== '''Yagya of the grihasthas''' ==
Sankara of course also describes in detail the various observances and fasts that a grhastha is expected to undertake, and even the rules of personal hygiene and social practice that he is expected to scrupulously follow. But he reverts again and again to the sustenance that flows from the grhastha in all directions, and concludes by an expansive listing of the diverse people and other living beings who keep looking up to the grhastha for their livelihood. Thus, says Sankara:3 <blockquote>'''yathd mdtaramdsritya sarve jivanti jantavah '''
tathd grhasramam prdpya sarve jivanti casramah</blockquote>Just as all living beings live under the protection of their mothers, so do all the asramas derive sustenance from the grhasthasrama. And further, <blockquote>'''rdjdnah sarvapdsandah sarve rangopajivinah '''
vyalagrahasca dambhasca cord rdjabhatastathd
savidydh sarvas'ilajndh sarve vai vicikitsakdh
durddhvdnam prapanndsca ksinapathyodand narah
ete cdnye ca bahavah tarkayanti grhasramam</blockquote><blockquote>Kings, impostors, artists and acrobats, snake-charmers, cheats, thieves and officers of the king: all of them look up to the grhastha for their sustenance; so do the scholars, the wise, and the sceptics; so do the men on the road, who have travelled a great deal and have exhausted the victuals they carried for the journey; and, so do many others.</blockquote><blockquote>3 Maha anusasana 141, p. 5924.</blockquote><blockquote>'''marjara musikah svanah sukaraica sukastatha '''
kapotaka karkatakah sansrpanisevanah
aranyavasinascanye sangha ye mrgapaksinam
evarh bahuvidhd devi loke'smin sacaracarah
grhe ksetre bile caiva sataso 'tha sahasrasah
grhasthena krtam karma sarvaistairiha bhujyate
</blockquote><blockquote>''Cats, mice, dogs, pigs, parrots, pigeons, crows, reptiles of all kinds, the bevies of birds and herds of animals that live in the forest, and also the hundreds and thousands of moving and unmoving creatures of diverse kinds that live in the house, the field or the burrow, all of them, O devi, live off what the grhastha earns through his karma, his actions. The merit of the one whose labours sustain so much of life on earth is of course great. It is no wonder that Sankara tells Uma:''</blockquote><blockquote>upayuktam ca yat tesam matiman nanusocati
dharma ityeva samkalpya yastu tasya phalarh s'rnu
sarvayajnapranitasya hayamedhena yat phalam
varse sa dvadase devi phalenaitena yujyate</blockquote><blockquote>''Listen to the virtue earned by the one who does not spare a second thought for what has been used up by the men and other living beings that look up to him for sustenance, and who knows that sustaining them is indeed his dharma. Such a one, having fulfilled the dharma of grhasthasrama for twelve years, attains the merit that accrues to those who perform an asvamedha after having first accomplished all other yagya. Such is the glory of grhasthasrama. And such are the yagyas of the grhastha, that sustain the whole world day after day.''</blockquote>

== '''The five great Yagyas of Grihasthas (Pancaiva mahayajnah)''' ==
The responsibility of the grhastha to provide for the sustenance of the daily routine of life around him is celebrated in the Indian classical texts as the pancamahayajna. These are the five great yagyas that a grhastha is expected to perform everyday. In fact, it is the performance of the pancamahayajna that defines a grhastha: one who does not undertake these yajhas everyday probably does not even qualify to be called by the name of a grhastha, a householder. And, as we shall see, through the performance of the pahcamahayajna, the householder shares his daily rituals with the representatives of different aspects of creation, and thus seems to remind himself afresh everyday of his responsibility towards all creation and re-dedicate himself to the sustenance of at least as much of creation as falls within his reach.

Pahcamahayajna is such an important observance for the Indians that references to it are found in all Indian literature: in the timeless Vedas, the ancient Itihasas and Puranas, and in the Smrtis and Dharmasastras of all ages. Amongst the references in the vedas, the one in the Satapathabrahmana is perhaps the most emphatic. In its authoritatively resonant phrases, the Satapathabrahmana lays down thus: <blockquote> 
'''pancaiva mahayajnah. tanyeva mahasatrani bhutayajno '''
manusyayajnah pitryajno devayajno brahmayajna 'iti.</blockquote><blockquote>aharaharbhutebhyo balim haret. tathaitam bhutayajnam
samapnotyaharaharddadyddodapatrdttathaitam
manusyayajnam samdpnotyaharahah svadha
kuryyadodapdtrdttathaitam pitryajnam samdpnotyaharahah
svdha kuryyada kasthattathaitam devayajnam samdpnoti.</blockquote><blockquote>atha brahmayajnah. svddhyayo vai brahmayajiiah''' (Satapatha 11.3.8.1-3, vol. 4 part 2 pp. 157-8). '''</blockquote>Only five are the mahayajnas. These alone are the mahasatras. And these are:
# Yajna for the bhutas, all created beings; Take out shares for the bhutas everyday. That constitutes bhutayajha.
# Yajna for manusyas, the human beings; Give away food everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes manusyayajha.
# Yajha for pitrs, the ancestors; Give away food for the sake of the ancestors' everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes pitryagya.
# Yajna for devas, the gods residing in various aspects of creation; and Give into the fire till the wood is all consumed. That constitutes devayajna.
# Yajna for Brahman, the font of all knowledge.
Here follows the description of brahmayajna: <blockquote>''svadhyaya, reverential and careful study of the branch of knowledge assigned for oneself, is indeed brahmayajna.''</blockquote>Sayanacarya, the highly respected fourteenth century commentator of the Vedas, explaining the various definitional phrases of the Satapatha prescription says that bhutayajha, etc., are called panchamahayajna, the five great yagyas, because these are to be undertaken always by everyone:<blockquote>'''bhutayajnadayo vaksyamanah 'pancaiva mahayajnah' sarvada sarvairanustheyatvdt''' (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.2, vol.4 part 2 p. 157)</blockquote>And these five are also the mahasatras, the great sessions, because these are performed everyday till the end of one's life, by the grhastha himself, without looking for a priest to conduct them: <blockquote>Mahamti niscalani satrani 'mahasatrdni' yavajfivamanustheyatvadrtviganapeksatvacca (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.1, vol.4 part 2 p. 157).</blockquote>

Incidentally, the TaittirTyaranyaka lays down almost exactly the same discipline for the pancamahayajna, insisting that this is an observance that has to be initiated and accomplished every day: <blockquote>Satati pratayante satati samtisthante ().7</blockquote>Sayanacarya also explains that <blockquote>Bhutayajna involves taking out a portion of food, with the resolve that it reach the bhutas, and keeping it aside for them. </blockquote><blockquote>Devayajha involves offering of food to the fire, for the sake of different devas, with their ritual invocation. </blockquote><blockquote>Pitryajha involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, while ceremonially invoking the ancestors with the resolve that the food being given away may propitiate them. </blockquote><blockquote>Manusyayajna involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, without any invocation, and with the resolve that mankind as a whole may achieve satiation.</blockquote>Brahmayajha, Sayanacarya says, involves reverential and careful study, adhyayana, of one's own branch of knowledge, of the knowledge assigned as one's proper domain: <blockquote>svasakhadhyayanam brahmayajna ityarthah.6 </blockquote>And such study is a yajha because it propitiates the devas, pitrs and rsis — the gods, the ancestors and the seers.<blockquote>'''Rnam ha vai jay ate yo'sti'''</blockquote>This unqualified insistence of the vedas on the daily undertaking of an observance, that emphasizes human responsibility towards the sustenance of all, is of course related to the Indian understanding of human life as a gift that is constituted of and is sustained by all aspects of creation. Man is thus born in and lives in rna, debt, to all creation, and it therefore becomes his duty to recognize this debt and undertake to repay it everyday. Explaining the principle, the Satapathabrahmana says:

8 Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.3, vol.4 part 2 p. 158. <blockquote>'''rnam ha vai jayate yo'sti. sa jayamana 'eva devebhya '''
'rsibhyah pitrbhyo manusyebhyah.</blockquote><blockquote>sa yadeva yajeta. tena devebhya 'rnaih jayate taddhyebhya
'etat karoti yadendnyajate yadebhyo juhoti.</blockquote><blockquote>atha yadevanubruvita. tena'rsibhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karotyarsinam nidhigopa iti
hayanucanamahuh.</blockquote><blockquote>atha yadeva prajdmiccheta. tenapitrbhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etatkaroti yadesam santatavyavacchinna
prajd bhavati.</blockquote><blockquote>a*ha yadeva vvasayeta. tena manusyebhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karoti yadenanvvasayate yadebhyo 'sanam
dMati sa ya 'etani sarvvani karoti sa krtakarma tasya
sdrvvamaptam sarvvam jitam?

Whosoever is, is born in rna. In being born, he is in rna to the devas, rsis, pitrs and manusyas. He performs yagya, because he is born in rna to the devas. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of the rna that he performs yajfia for the devas and offers homa to them.</blockquote><blockquote>9 Satapatha 1.5.5.1-5, vol.1 part 1 pp. 250-1.</blockquote><blockquote>And he learns and recites what the rsis have taught, because he is born in rna to the rsis. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; learning and reciting thus, he is acknowledged by the wise as the protector of the treasure of the learning of the rsis. And he desires for progeny, because he is born in rna to the pitrs. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of this that he keeps the line of progeny of the pitrs continuing without a break.</blockquote><blockquote>And he offers hospitality, because he is born in rna to the manusyas. It is because of this rna that he does this for them;
it is because of this that he offers hospitality and food to others. He, who does all this, fulfils all his obligations; for him all is attained and all is conquered.</blockquote>Pancamahayajha, thus, is not an observance that is undertaken for the sake of earning merit or virtue. It is merely a matter of accepting and endeavouring to repay debts that are incurred by the fact of being born and living in the world. It is merely being humanly responsible.

== References ==
annam Bahu Kurvita

Uma Shankara Samvada (उमाशङ्करयोः संवादः)

2017-09-07T15:19:13Z

P16232: /* Uma-Sankara Samvada */

== Uma-Sankara Samvada ==
There arises many an occasion in Indian classical literature to celebrate the centrality of the grhasthasrama amongst the four ashramas, the four stages of life that an Indian is expected to follow sequentially in a lifetime. One of the most attractive statements of this centrality occurs in the Anusasana parva of Mahabharata, where Bhishma narrates how in earlier times Sri Krishna undertakes great austerities on the Himalayas and an episode that occurs one day during the practice of these austerities. The great Rishis have assembled and at the urging of the tapasvin Sri Krishna, Narada begins to recall a long discussion on different aspects of dharma that takes place between Sankara and Uma. Both are living the life of a happy man and wife on the Himalayas, which in the presence of the divine couple joyously blossoms with natural splendour and beauty. Narada recounts this episode, <blockquote>''Once Uma, standing behind Sankara, playfully covers his eyes with her hands. Instantly the whole world is enveloped in deep darkness. Soon Sankara opens his third-eye that bathes the world in its brilliant gaze. But the Himalayas, unable to bear the sun-like radiance of Sankara's third-eye, catch fire. And Uma, filled with compassion for the Himalayas, appears in front of Sankara with folded hands. Seeing her thus, Sankara recovers his benign tranquility. He looks at the world with a happy gaze. And the world becomes happy too.''</blockquote>It is then that Uma begins to ask Sankara various questions about the meaning of his forms and that of the various aspects of dharma. In the course of this dialogue between the divine husband and wife, Uma also seeks to know the dharma of ashramas, of the way a man ought to lead his life at different stages during a lifetime. And, Sankara begins his answer to Uma's queries with the unequivocal assertion that of the four asramas the grhasthasrama is indeed the foremost:<blockquote>'''Put down sanskrit'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''grhasthah pravarstesam grhasthyam dharmamasritah''' (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5922).</blockquote>Sankara then briefly describes the discipline of the four asramas, but his heart seems to be in describing the grhathasramadharma for Uma. Dealing with vanaprasthasrama, the discipline of the forest-dweller, and the sannyasasrama, the discipline of the renouncer, in just six and a half verses, Sankara soon returns to a very detailed description of the grhasthasrama. And the core of the discipline of grhastha that Sankara describes is in looking after and generously providing for the sustenance of all, and especially of the guests who arrive at the door of the householder. This opportunity to look after and sustain others is what makes the grhasthasrama so great that, as Sankara says, the severest austerities of vanaprasthasrama cannot measure up to even the one-sixteenth part of the merit acquired by properly fulfilled grhasthasrama:
samyak tapascarantiha sraddadhana vanasrame grhasramasya te devi aldm ndrhanti sodasim? (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5923)

== '''Yagya of the grihasthas''' ==
Sankara of course also describes in detail the various observances and fasts that a grhastha is expected to undertake, and even the rules of personal hygiene and social practice that he is expected to scrupulously follow. But he reverts again and again to the sustenance that flows from the grhastha in all directions, and concludes by an expansive listing of the diverse people and other living beings who keep looking up to the grhastha for their livelihood. Thus, says Sankara:3

'''yathd mdtaramdsritya sarve jivanti jantavah
tathd grhasramam prdpya sarve jivanti casramah'''

Just as all living beings live under the protection of their mothers, so do all the asramas derive sustenance from the grhasthasrama. And further,

'''rdjdnah sarvapdsandah sarve rangopajivinah
vyalagrahasca dambhasca cord rdjabhatastathd
savidydh sarvas'ilajndh sarve vai vicikitsakdh
durddhvdnam prapanndsca ksinapathyodand narah
ete cdnye ca bahavah tarkayanti grhasramam'''

Kings, impostors, artists and acrobats, snake-charmers, cheats, thieves and officers of the king: all of them look up to the grhastha for their sustenance; so do the scholars, the wise, and the sceptics; so do the men on the road, who have travelled a great deal and have exhausted the victuals they carried for the journey; and, so do many others.

3 Maha anusasana 141, p. 5924.

'''marjara musikah svanah sukaraica sukastatha
kapotaka karkatakah sansrpanisevanah
aranyavasinascanye sangha ye mrgapaksinam
evarh bahuvidhd devi loke'smin sacaracarah
grhe ksetre bile caiva sataso 'tha sahasrasah
grhasthena krtam karma sarvaistairiha bhujyate
'''

Cats, mice, dogs, pigs, parrots, pigeons, crows, reptiles of all kinds, the bevies of birds and herds of animals that live in the forest, and also the hundreds and thousands of moving and unmoving creatures of diverse kinds that live in the house, the field or the burrow, all of them, O devi, live off what the grhastha earns through his karma, his actions. The merit of the one whose labours sustain so much of life on earth is of course great. It is no wonder that Sankara tells Uma:

upayuktam ca yat tesam matiman nanusocati
dharma ityeva samkalpya yastu tasya phalarh s'rnu
sarvayajnapranitasya hayamedhena yat phalam
varse sa dvadase devi phalenaitena yujyate

Listen to the virtue earned by the one who does not spare a second thought for what has been used up by the men and other living beings that look up to him for sustenance, and who knows that sustaining them is indeed his dharma. Such a one, having fulfilled the dharma of grhasthasrama for twelve years, attains the merit that accrues to those who perform an asvamedha after having first accomplished all other yagya. Such is the glory of grhasthasrama. And such are the yagyas of the grhastha, that sustain the whole world day after day.

=== '''The five great Yagyas of Grihasthas (Pancaiva mahayajnah)''' ===
The responsibility of the grhastha to provide for the sustenance of the daily routine of life around him is celebrated in the Indian classical texts as the pancamahayajna. These are the five great yagyasthat a grhastha is expected to perform everyday. In fact, it is the performance of the pancamahayajna that defines a grhastha: one who does not undertake these yajhas everyday probably does not even qualify to be called by the name of a grhastha, a householder. And, as we shall see, through the performance of the pahcamahayajna, the householder shares his daily victuals with the representatives of different aspects of creation, and thus seems to remind himself afresh everyday of his responsibility towards all creation and re-dedicate himself to the sustenance of at least as much of creation as falls within his reach.

Pahcamahayajna is such an important observance for the Indians that references to it are found in all Indian literature: in the timeless Vedas, the ancient Itihasas and Puranas, and in the Smrtis and Dharmasastras of all ages. Amongst the references in the vedas, the one in the Satapathabrahmana is perhaps the most emphatic. In its authoritatively resonant phrases, the Satapathabrahmana lays down thus:

'''pancaiva mahayajnah. tanyeva mahasatrani bhutayajno
manusyayajnah pitryajno devayajno brahmayajna 'iti.

aharaharbhutebhyo balim haret. tathaitam bhutayajnam
samapnotyaharaharddadyddodapatrdttathaitam
manusyayajnam samdpnotyaharahah svadha
kuryyadodapdtrdttathaitam pitryajnam samdpnotyaharahah
svdha kuryyada kasthattathaitam devayajnam samdpnoti.

atha brahmayajnah. svddhyayo vai brahmayajiiah''' (Satapatha 11.3.8.1-3, vol. 4 part 2 pp. 157-8).

Only five are the mahayajnas. These alone are the mahasatras. And these are: yajna for the bhutas, all created beings; yajna for manusyas, the human beings; yajha for pitrs, the ancestors; yajna for devas, the gods residing in various aspects of creation; and yajna for Brahman, the font of all knowledge. Take out shares for the bhutas everyday. That constitutes bhutayajha. Give away food everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes manusyayajha. Give away food for the sake of the ancestors' everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes pitryagya. Give into the fire till the wood is all consumed. That constitutes devayajna. Here follows the description of brahmayajna: svadhyaya, reverential and careful study of the branch of knowledge assigned for oneself, is indeed brahmayajna.

Sayanacarya, the highly respected fourteenth century commentator of the Vedas, explaining the various definitional phrases of the Satapatha prescription says that bhutayajha, etc., are called paficamahayajna, the five great yagyas, because these are to be undertaken always by everyone:

'''bhutayajnadayo vaksyamanah 'pancaiva mahayajnah' sarvada sarvairanustheyatvdt''' (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.2, vol.4 part 2 p. 157)

And these five are also the mahasatras, the great sessions, because these are performed everyday till the end of one's life, by the grhastha himself, without looking for a priest to conduct them: mahamti niscalani satrani 'mahasatrdni' yavajfivamanustheyatvadrtviganapeksatvacca (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.1, vol.4 part 2 p. 157).

Incidentally, the TaittirTyaranyaka lays down almost exactly the same discipline for the pancamahayajna, insisting that this is an observance that has to be initiated and accomplished every day: satati pratayante satati samtisthante ().7

Sayanacarya also explains that bhutayajna involves taking out a portion of food, with the resolve that it reach the bhutas, and keeping it aside for them. Devayajha involves offering of food to the fire, for the sake of different devas, with their ritual invocation. Pitryajha involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, while ceremonially invoking the ancestors with the resolve that the food being given away may propitiate them. And manusyayajna involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, without any invocation, and with the resolve that mankind as a whole may achieve satiation. Brahmayajha, Sayanacarya says, involves reverential and careful study, adhyayana, of one's own branch of knowledge, of the knowledge assigned as one's proper domain: svasakhadhyayanam brahmayajna ityarthah.6 And such study is a yajha because it propitiates the devas, pitrs and rsis — the gods, the ancestors and the seers.

'''Rnam ha vai jay ate yo'sti'''

This unqualified insistence of the vedas on the daily undertaking of an observance, that emphasizes human responsibility towards the sustenance of all, is of course related to the Indian understanding of human life as a gift that is constituted of and is sustained by all aspects of creation. Man is thus born in and lives in rna, debt, to all creation, and it therefore becomes his duty to recognize this debt and undertake to repay it everyday. Explaining the principle, the Satapathabrahmana says:

8 Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.3, vol.4 part 2 p. 158.

'''rnam ha vai jayate yo'sti. sa jayamana 'eva devebhya
'rsibhyah pitrbhyo manusyebhyah.

sa yadeva yajeta. tena devebhya 'rnaih jayate taddhyebhya
'etat karoti yadendnyajate yadebhyo juhoti.

atha yadevanubruvita. tena'rsibhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karotyarsinam nidhigopa iti
hayanucanamahuh.

atha yadeva prajdmiccheta. tenapitrbhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etatkaroti yadesam santatavyavacchinna
prajd bhavati.

a*ha yadeva vvasayeta. tena manusyebhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karoti yadenanvvasayate yadebhyo 'sanam
dMati sa ya 'etani sarvvani karoti sa krtakarma tasya
sdrvvamaptam sarvvam jitam?
'''
Whosoever is, is born in rna. In being born, he is in rna to the devas, rsis, pitrs and manusyas. He performs yagya, because he is born in rna to the devas. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of the rna that he performs yajfia for the devas and offers homa to them.

9 Satapatha 1.5.5.1-5, vol.1 part 1 pp. 250-1.

And he learns and recites what the rsis have taught, because he is born in rna to the rsis. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; learning and reciting thus, he is acknowledged by the wise as the protector of the treasure of the learning of the rsis. And he desires for progeny, because he is born in rna to the pitrs. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of this that he keeps the line of progeny of the pitrs continuing without a break.

And he offers hospitality, because he is born in rna to the manusyas. It is because of this rna that he does this for them;
it is because of this that he offers hospitality and food to others. He, who does all this, fulfils all his obligations; for him all is attained and all is conquered.

Pancamahayajha, thus, is not an observance that is undertaken for the sake of earning merit or virtue. It is merely a matter of accepting and endeavouring to repay debts that are incurred by the fact of being born and living in the world. It is merely being humanly responsible.

Uma Shankara Samvada (उमाशङ्करयोः संवादः)

2017-09-07T15:06:19Z

P16232:

== Uma-Sankara Samvada ==
There arises many an occasion in Indian classical literature to celebrate the centrality of the grhasthasrama amongst the four ashramas, the four stages of life that an Indian is expected to follow sequentially in a lifetime. One of the most attractive statements of this centrality occurs in the Anusasana parva of Mahabharata, where Bhishma narrates how in earlier times Sri Krishna undertakes great austerities on the Himalayas and an episode that occurs one day during the practice of these austerities. The great Rishis have assembled and at the urging of the tapasvin SriKrishna, Narada begins to recall a long discussion on different aspects of dharma that takes place between Sankara and Uma. Both are living the life of a happy man and wife on the Himalayas, which in the presence of the divine couple joyously blossoms with natural splendour and beauty. <blockquote>''According to Narada's recounting of the events, once Uma, standing behind Sankara, playfully covers his eyes with her hands. Instantly the whole world is enveloped in deep darkness. Soon Sankara opens his third-eye that bathes the world in its brilliant gaze. But the Himalayas, unable to bear the sun-like radiance of Sankara's third-eye, catch fire. And Uma, filled with compassion for the Himalayas, appears in front of Sankara with folded hands. Seeing her thus, Sankara recovers his benign tranquility. He looks at the world with a happy gaze. And the world becomes happy too.''</blockquote>It is then that Uma begins to ask Sankara various questions about the meaning of his forms and that of the various aspects of dharma. In the course of this dialogue between the divine husband and wife, Uma also seeks to know the dharma of asramas, of the way a man ought to lead his life at different stages during a lifetime. And, Sankara begins his answer to Uma's queries with the unequivocal assertion that of the four asramas the grhasthasrama is indeed the foremost:

'''grhasthah pravarstesam grhasthyam dharmamasritah''' (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5922).

Sankara then briefly describes the discipline of the four asramas, but his heart seems to be in describing the grhathasramadharma for Uma. Dealing with vanaprasthasrama, the discipline of the forest-dweller, and the sannyasasrama, the discipline of the renouncer, in just six and a half verses, Sankara soon returns to a very detailed description of the grhasthasrama. And the core of the discipline of grhastha that Sankara describes is in looking after and generously providing for the sustenance of all, and especially of the guests who arrive at the door of the householder. This opportunity to look after and sustain others is what makes the grhasthasrama so great that, as Sankara says, the severest austerities of vanaprasthasrama cannot measure up to even the one-sixteenth part of the merit acquired by properly fulfilled grhasthasrama:
samyak tapascarantiha sraddadhana vanasrame grhasramasya te devi aldm ndrhanti sodasim? (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5923)

== '''Yagya of the grihasthas''' ==
Sankara of course also describes in detail the various observances and fasts that a grhastha is expected to undertake, and even the rules of personal hygiene and social practice that he is expected to scrupulously follow. But he reverts again and again to the sustenance that flows from the grhastha in all directions, and concludes by an expansive listing of the diverse people and other living beings who keep looking up to the grhastha for their livelihood. Thus, says Sankara:3

'''yathd mdtaramdsritya sarve jivanti jantavah
tathd grhasramam prdpya sarve jivanti casramah'''

Just as all living beings live under the protection of their mothers, so do all the asramas derive sustenance from the grhasthasrama. And further,

'''rdjdnah sarvapdsandah sarve rangopajivinah
vyalagrahasca dambhasca cord rdjabhatastathd
savidydh sarvas'ilajndh sarve vai vicikitsakdh
durddhvdnam prapanndsca ksinapathyodand narah
ete cdnye ca bahavah tarkayanti grhasramam'''

Kings, impostors, artists and acrobats, snake-charmers, cheats, thieves and officers of the king: all of them look up to the grhastha for their sustenance; so do the scholars, the wise, and the sceptics; so do the men on the road, who have travelled a great deal and have exhausted the victuals they carried for the journey; and, so do many others.

3 Maha anusasana 141, p. 5924.

'''marjara musikah svanah sukaraica sukastatha
kapotaka karkatakah sansrpanisevanah
aranyavasinascanye sangha ye mrgapaksinam
evarh bahuvidhd devi loke'smin sacaracarah
grhe ksetre bile caiva sataso 'tha sahasrasah
grhasthena krtam karma sarvaistairiha bhujyate
'''

Cats, mice, dogs, pigs, parrots, pigeons, crows, reptiles of all kinds, the bevies of birds and herds of animals that live in the forest, and also the hundreds and thousands of moving and unmoving creatures of diverse kinds that live in the house, the field or the burrow, all of them, O devi, live off what the grhastha earns through his karma, his actions. The merit of the one whose labours sustain so much of life on earth is of course great. It is no wonder that Sankara tells Uma:

upayuktam ca yat tesam matiman nanusocati
dharma ityeva samkalpya yastu tasya phalarh s'rnu
sarvayajnapranitasya hayamedhena yat phalam
varse sa dvadase devi phalenaitena yujyate

Listen to the virtue earned by the one who does not spare a second thought for what has been used up by the men and other living beings that look up to him for sustenance, and who knows that sustaining them is indeed his dharma. Such a one, having fulfilled the dharma of grhasthasrama for twelve years, attains the merit that accrues to those who perform an asvamedha after having first accomplished all other yagya. Such is the glory of grhasthasrama. And such are the yagyas of the grhastha, that sustain the whole world day after day.

=== '''The five great Yagyas of Grihasthas (Pancaiva mahayajnah)''' ===
The responsibility of the grhastha to provide for the sustenance of the daily routine of life around him is celebrated in the Indian classical texts as the pancamahayajna. These are the five great yagyasthat a grhastha is expected to perform everyday. In fact, it is the performance of the pancamahayajna that defines a grhastha: one who does not undertake these yajhas everyday probably does not even qualify to be called by the name of a grhastha, a householder. And, as we shall see, through the performance of the pahcamahayajna, the householder shares his daily victuals with the representatives of different aspects of creation, and thus seems to remind himself afresh everyday of his responsibility towards all creation and re-dedicate himself to the sustenance of at least as much of creation as falls within his reach.

Pahcamahayajna is such an important observance for the Indians that references to it are found in all Indian literature: in the timeless Vedas, the ancient Itihasas and Puranas, and in the Smrtis and Dharmasastras of all ages. Amongst the references in the vedas, the one in the Satapathabrahmana is perhaps the most emphatic. In its authoritatively resonant phrases, the Satapathabrahmana lays down thus:

'''pancaiva mahayajnah. tanyeva mahasatrani bhutayajno
manusyayajnah pitryajno devayajno brahmayajna 'iti.

aharaharbhutebhyo balim haret. tathaitam bhutayajnam
samapnotyaharaharddadyddodapatrdttathaitam
manusyayajnam samdpnotyaharahah svadha
kuryyadodapdtrdttathaitam pitryajnam samdpnotyaharahah
svdha kuryyada kasthattathaitam devayajnam samdpnoti.

atha brahmayajnah. svddhyayo vai brahmayajiiah''' (Satapatha 11.3.8.1-3, vol. 4 part 2 pp. 157-8).

Only five are the mahayajnas. These alone are the mahasatras. And these are: yajna for the bhutas, all created beings; yajna for manusyas, the human beings; yajha for pitrs, the ancestors; yajna for devas, the gods residing in various aspects of creation; and yajna for Brahman, the font of all knowledge. Take out shares for the bhutas everyday. That constitutes bhutayajha. Give away food everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes manusyayajha. Give away food for the sake of the ancestors' everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes pitryagya. Give into the fire till the wood is all consumed. That constitutes devayajna. Here follows the description of brahmayajna: svadhyaya, reverential and careful study of the branch of knowledge assigned for oneself, is indeed brahmayajna.

Sayanacarya, the highly respected fourteenth century commentator of the Vedas, explaining the various definitional phrases of the Satapatha prescription says that bhutayajha, etc., are called paficamahayajna, the five great yagyas, because these are to be undertaken always by everyone:

'''bhutayajnadayo vaksyamanah 'pancaiva mahayajnah' sarvada sarvairanustheyatvdt''' (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.2, vol.4 part 2 p. 157)

And these five are also the mahasatras, the great sessions, because these are performed everyday till the end of one's life, by the grhastha himself, without looking for a priest to conduct them: mahamti niscalani satrani 'mahasatrdni' yavajfivamanustheyatvadrtviganapeksatvacca (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.1, vol.4 part 2 p. 157).

Incidentally, the TaittirTyaranyaka lays down almost exactly the same discipline for the pancamahayajna, insisting that this is an observance that has to be initiated and accomplished every day: satati pratayante satati samtisthante ().7

Sayanacarya also explains that bhutayajna involves taking out a portion of food, with the resolve that it reach the bhutas, and keeping it aside for them. Devayajha involves offering of food to the fire, for the sake of different devas, with their ritual invocation. Pitryajha involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, while ceremonially invoking the ancestors with the resolve that the food being given away may propitiate them. And manusyayajna involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, without any invocation, and with the resolve that mankind as a whole may achieve satiation. Brahmayajha, Sayanacarya says, involves reverential and careful study, adhyayana, of one's own branch of knowledge, of the knowledge assigned as one's proper domain: svasakhadhyayanam brahmayajna ityarthah.6 And such study is a yajha because it propitiates the devas, pitrs and rsis — the gods, the ancestors and the seers.

'''Rnam ha vai jay ate yo'sti'''

This unqualified insistence of the vedas on the daily undertaking of an observance, that emphasizes human responsibility towards the sustenance of all, is of course related to the Indian understanding of human life as a gift that is constituted of and is sustained by all aspects of creation. Man is thus born in and lives in rna, debt, to all creation, and it therefore becomes his duty to recognize this debt and undertake to repay it everyday. Explaining the principle, the Satapathabrahmana says:

8 Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.3, vol.4 part 2 p. 158.

'''rnam ha vai jayate yo'sti. sa jayamana 'eva devebhya
'rsibhyah pitrbhyo manusyebhyah.

sa yadeva yajeta. tena devebhya 'rnaih jayate taddhyebhya
'etat karoti yadendnyajate yadebhyo juhoti.

atha yadevanubruvita. tena'rsibhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karotyarsinam nidhigopa iti
hayanucanamahuh.

atha yadeva prajdmiccheta. tenapitrbhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etatkaroti yadesam santatavyavacchinna
prajd bhavati.

a*ha yadeva vvasayeta. tena manusyebhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karoti yadenanvvasayate yadebhyo 'sanam
dMati sa ya 'etani sarvvani karoti sa krtakarma tasya
sdrvvamaptam sarvvam jitam?
'''
Whosoever is, is born in rna. In being born, he is in rna to the devas, rsis, pitrs and manusyas. He performs yagya, because he is born in rna to the devas. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of the rna that he performs yajfia for the devas and offers homa to them.

9 Satapatha 1.5.5.1-5, vol.1 part 1 pp. 250-1.

And he learns and recites what the rsis have taught, because he is born in rna to the rsis. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; learning and reciting thus, he is acknowledged by the wise as the protector of the treasure of the learning of the rsis. And he desires for progeny, because he is born in rna to the pitrs. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of this that he keeps the line of progeny of the pitrs continuing without a break.

And he offers hospitality, because he is born in rna to the manusyas. It is because of this rna that he does this for them;
it is because of this that he offers hospitality and food to others. He, who does all this, fulfils all his obligations; for him all is attained and all is conquered.

Pancamahayajha, thus, is not an observance that is undertaken for the sake of earning merit or virtue. It is merely a matter of accepting and endeavouring to repay debts that are incurred by the fact of being born and living in the world. It is merely being humanly responsible.

Uma Shankara Samvada (उमाशङ्करयोः संवादः)

2017-09-06T10:47:12Z

P16232:

'''Grhasthasrama: Uma-Sankara samvada'''

There arises many an occasion in Indian classical literature to celebrate the centrality of the grhasthasrama amongst the four asramas, the four stages of life that an Indian is expected to follow sequentially in a lifetime. One of the most attractive statements of this centrality occurs in the anusasanaparvan of Mahabharata, where Bhisma narrates how in earlier times Srikrsna undertakes great austerities on the Himalayas, how one day during the practice of these austerities the great rsis gather around him, and how at the urging of tapasvin SrTkrsna, Narada begins to recall a long discussion on different aspects of dharma that takes place between Sankara and Uma while they are living the life of a happy man and wife on the Himalayas, which in the presence of the divine couple joyously blossom with natural splendour and beauty.

According to Narada's recounting of the events, once Uma, standing behind Sankara, playfully covers his eyes with her hands. Instantly the whole world is enveloped in deep darkness. Soon Sankara opens his third-eye that bathes the world in its brilliant gaze. But the Himalayas, unable to bear the sun-like radiance of Sankara's third-eye, catch fire. And Uma, filled with compassion for the Himalayas, appears in front of Sankara with folded hands. Seeing her thus, Sankara recovers his benign tranquility. He looks at the world with a happy gaze. And the world becomes happy too.

It is then that Uma begins to ask Sankara various questions about the meaning of his forms and that of the various aspects of dharma. In the course of this dialogue between the divine husband and wife, Uma also seeks to know the dharma of asramas, of the way a man ought to lead his life at different stages during a lifetime. And, Sankara begins his answer to Uma's queries with the unequivocal assertion that of the four asramas the grhasthasrama is indeed the foremost:

'''grhasthah pravarstesam grhasthyam dharmamasritah''' (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5922).

Sankara then briefly describes the discipline of the four asramas, but his heart seems to be in describing the grhathasramadharma for Uma. Dealing with vanaprasthasrama, the discipline of the forest-dweller, and the sannyasasrama, the discipline of the renouncer, in just six and a half verses, Sankara soon returns to a very detailed description of the grhasthasrama. And the core of the discipline of grhastha that Sankara describes is in looking after and generously providing for the sustenance of all, and especially of the guests who arrive at the door of the householder. This opportunity to look after and sustain others is what makes the grhasthasrama so great that, as Sankara says, the severest austerities of vanaprasthasrama cannot measure up to even the one-sixteenth part of the merit acquired by properly fulfilled grhasthasrama:
samyak tapascarantiha sraddadhana vanasrame grhasramasya te devi aldm ndrhanti sodasim? (Maha anusasana 141, p. 5923)

== '''Yagya of the grihasthas''' ==
Sankara of course also describes in detail the various observances and fasts that a grhastha is expected to undertake, and even the rules of personal hygiene and social practice that he is expected to scrupulously follow. But he reverts again and again to the sustenance that flows from the grhastha in all directions, and concludes by an expansive listing of the diverse people and other living beings who keep looking up to the grhastha for their livelihood. Thus, says Sankara:3

'''yathd mdtaramdsritya sarve jivanti jantavah
tathd grhasramam prdpya sarve jivanti casramah'''

Just as all living beings live under the protection of their mothers, so do all the asramas derive sustenance from the grhasthasrama. And further,

'''rdjdnah sarvapdsandah sarve rangopajivinah
vyalagrahasca dambhasca cord rdjabhatastathd
savidydh sarvas'ilajndh sarve vai vicikitsakdh
durddhvdnam prapanndsca ksinapathyodand narah
ete cdnye ca bahavah tarkayanti grhasramam'''

Kings, impostors, artists and acrobats, snake-charmers, cheats, thieves and officers of the king: all of them look up to the grhastha for their sustenance; so do the scholars, the wise, and the sceptics; so do the men on the road, who have travelled a great deal and have exhausted the victuals they carried for the journey; and, so do many others.

3 Maha anusasana 141, p. 5924.

'''marjara musikah svanah sukaraica sukastatha
kapotaka karkatakah sansrpanisevanah
aranyavasinascanye sangha ye mrgapaksinam
evarh bahuvidhd devi loke'smin sacaracarah
grhe ksetre bile caiva sataso 'tha sahasrasah
grhasthena krtam karma sarvaistairiha bhujyate
'''

Cats, mice, dogs, pigs, parrots, pigeons, crows, reptiles of all kinds, the bevies of birds and herds of animals that live in the forest, and also the hundreds and thousands of moving and unmoving creatures of diverse kinds that live in the house, the field or the burrow, all of them, O devi, live off what the grhastha earns through his karma, his actions. The merit of the one whose labours sustain so much of life on earth is of course great. It is no wonder that Sankara tells Uma:

upayuktam ca yat tesam matiman nanusocati
dharma ityeva samkalpya yastu tasya phalarh s'rnu
sarvayajnapranitasya hayamedhena yat phalam
varse sa dvadase devi phalenaitena yujyate

Listen to the virtue earned by the one who does not spare a second thought for what has been used up by the men and other living beings that look up to him for sustenance, and who knows that sustaining them is indeed his dharma. Such a one, having fulfilled the dharma of grhasthasrama for twelve years, attains the merit that accrues to those who perform an asvamedha after having first accomplished all other yagya. Such is the glory of grhasthasrama. And such are the yagyas of the grhastha, that sustain the whole world day after day.

=== '''The five great Yagyas of Grihasthas (Pancaiva mahayajnah)''' ===
The responsibility of the grhastha to provide for the sustenance of the daily routine of life around him is celebrated in the Indian classical texts as the pancamahayajna. These are the five great yagyasthat a grhastha is expected to perform everyday. In fact, it is the performance of the pancamahayajna that defines a grhastha: one who does not undertake these yajhas everyday probably does not even qualify to be called by the name of a grhastha, a householder. And, as we shall see, through the performance of the pahcamahayajna, the householder shares his daily victuals with the representatives of different aspects of creation, and thus seems to remind himself afresh everyday of his responsibility towards all creation and re-dedicate himself to the sustenance of at least as much of creation as falls within his reach.

Pahcamahayajna is such an important observance for the Indians that references to it are found in all Indian literature: in the timeless Vedas, the ancient Itihasas and Puranas, and in the Smrtis and Dharmasastras of all ages. Amongst the references in the vedas, the one in the Satapathabrahmana is perhaps the most emphatic. In its authoritatively resonant phrases, the Satapathabrahmana lays down thus:

'''pancaiva mahayajnah. tanyeva mahasatrani bhutayajno
manusyayajnah pitryajno devayajno brahmayajna 'iti.

aharaharbhutebhyo balim haret. tathaitam bhutayajnam
samapnotyaharaharddadyddodapatrdttathaitam
manusyayajnam samdpnotyaharahah svadha
kuryyadodapdtrdttathaitam pitryajnam samdpnotyaharahah
svdha kuryyada kasthattathaitam devayajnam samdpnoti.

atha brahmayajnah. svddhyayo vai brahmayajiiah''' (Satapatha 11.3.8.1-3, vol. 4 part 2 pp. 157-8).

Only five are the mahayajnas. These alone are the mahasatras. And these are: yajna for the bhutas, all created beings; yajna for manusyas, the human beings; yajha for pitrs, the ancestors; yajna for devas, the gods residing in various aspects of creation; and yajna for Brahman, the font of all knowledge. Take out shares for the bhutas everyday. That constitutes bhutayajha. Give away food everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes manusyayajha. Give away food for the sake of the ancestors' everyday till the pot is exhausted. That constitutes pitryagya. Give into the fire till the wood is all consumed. That constitutes devayajna. Here follows the description of brahmayajna: svadhyaya, reverential and careful study of the branch of knowledge assigned for oneself, is indeed brahmayajna.

Sayanacarya, the highly respected fourteenth century commentator of the Vedas, explaining the various definitional phrases of the Satapatha prescription says that bhutayajha, etc., are called paficamahayajna, the five great yagyas, because these are to be undertaken always by everyone:

'''bhutayajnadayo vaksyamanah 'pancaiva mahayajnah' sarvada sarvairanustheyatvdt''' (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.2, vol.4 part 2 p. 157)

And these five are also the mahasatras, the great sessions, because these are performed everyday till the end of one's life, by the grhastha himself, without looking for a priest to conduct them: mahamti niscalani satrani 'mahasatrdni' yavajfivamanustheyatvadrtviganapeksatvacca (Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.1, vol.4 part 2 p. 157).

Incidentally, the TaittirTyaranyaka lays down almost exactly the same discipline for the pancamahayajna, insisting that this is an observance that has to be initiated and accomplished every day: satati pratayante satati samtisthante ().7

Sayanacarya also explains that bhutayajna involves taking out a portion of food, with the resolve that it reach the bhutas, and keeping it aside for them. Devayajha involves offering of food to the fire, for the sake of different devas, with their ritual invocation. Pitryajha involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, while ceremonially invoking the ancestors with the resolve that the food being given away may propitiate them. And manusyayajna involves the giving away of food till the pot is empty, without any invocation, and with the resolve that mankind as a whole may achieve satiation. Brahmayajha, Sayanacarya says, involves reverential and careful study, adhyayana, of one's own branch of knowledge, of the knowledge assigned as one's proper domain: svasakhadhyayanam brahmayajna ityarthah.6 And such study is a yajha because it propitiates the devas, pitrs and rsis — the gods, the ancestors and the seers.

'''Rnam ha vai jay ate yo'sti'''

This unqualified insistence of the vedas on the daily undertaking of an observance, that emphasizes human responsibility towards the sustenance of all, is of course related to the Indian understanding of human life as a gift that is constituted of and is sustained by all aspects of creation. Man is thus born in and lives in rna, debt, to all creation, and it therefore becomes his duty to recognize this debt and undertake to repay it everyday. Explaining the principle, the Satapathabrahmana says:

8 Sayanacarya on Satapatha 11.3.8.3, vol.4 part 2 p. 158.

'''rnam ha vai jayate yo'sti. sa jayamana 'eva devebhya
'rsibhyah pitrbhyo manusyebhyah.

sa yadeva yajeta. tena devebhya 'rnaih jayate taddhyebhya
'etat karoti yadendnyajate yadebhyo juhoti.

atha yadevanubruvita. tena'rsibhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karotyarsinam nidhigopa iti
hayanucanamahuh.

atha yadeva prajdmiccheta. tenapitrbhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etatkaroti yadesam santatavyavacchinna
prajd bhavati.

a*ha yadeva vvasayeta. tena manusyebhya 'rnam jayate
taddhyebhya 'etat karoti yadenanvvasayate yadebhyo 'sanam
dMati sa ya 'etani sarvvani karoti sa krtakarma tasya
sdrvvamaptam sarvvam jitam?
'''
Whosoever is, is born in rna. In being born, he is in rna to the devas, rsis, pitrs and manusyas. He performs yagya, because he is born in rna to the devas. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of the rna that he performs yajfia for the devas and offers homa to them.

9 Satapatha 1.5.5.1-5, vol.1 part 1 pp. 250-1.

And he learns and recites what the rsis have taught, because he is born in rna to the rsis. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; learning and reciting thus, he is acknowledged by the wise as the protector of the treasure of the learning of the rsis. And he desires for progeny, because he is born in rna to the pitrs. It is because of the rna that he does this for them; it is because of this that he keeps the line of progeny of the pitrs continuing without a break.

And he offers hospitality, because he is born in rna to the manusyas. It is because of this rna that he does this for them;
it is because of this that he offers hospitality and food to others. He, who does all this, fulfils all his obligations; for him all is attained and all is conquered.

Pancamahayajha, thus, is not an observance that is undertaken for the sake of earning merit or virtue. It is merely a matter of accepting and endeavouring to repay debts that are incurred by the fact of being born and living in the world. It is merely being humanly responsible.

Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)

2017-09-01T10:47:17Z

P16232: /* Four basic yoga paths for the individual's spiritual development */

== What is Sanatana Dharma ==
<blockquote>'''Sanatana means eternal, never beginning nor ending.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Dharma is from dhri, meaning to hold together, to sustain.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma eternally holds All together.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma means:'''</blockquote>
* '''Eternal Path'''
* '''Never Beginning nor Ending Way'''
* '''Perennial Philosophy'''
* '''Universal Tradition'''
* '''All-Pervading Truth'''
* '''Natural Flow'''

== Introduction ==
Some people think that Hinduism or Vedic philosophy is difficult to understand, and, thus, hard to explain. But if you look at it succinctly, it is not very difficult at all. All you have to do is know what to say. So this little article presents the essential principles in a concise way that everyone can learn and repeat when necessary. Hinduism is also more correctly called by its Sanskrit name: Sanatana-Dharma.

=== Meaning of Sanatana Dharma ===
This, essentially, means to follow one’s eternal duty, which is to search for and understand our spiritual identity, and then to learn to live according to those eternal and spiritual characteristics, especially by one’s own spiritual realizations. This is also the purpose and mission of the Vedic philosophy and culture, and our ultimate duty in human life.

=== The Vedic philosophy, (that which is based on the ancient Vedas and its supporting literature of India) ===
* to help humanity understand who we really are, and the purpose of life. It is like the manual you get when you buy an appliance and need to understand exactly how it works. The Vedic literature is there to help all of us.

== 10 basic principles of Sanatana Dharma ==
These are the ones most accepted by the majority of people who follow Sanatana-dharma, and are also referenced in the Vedic texts. Beyond these, there are various schools of thought, which have further developments in their own outlook and philosophy, such as the ''Shaivites, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, Brahmanandis, Tantrics,'' and so on.
# '''There is one Supreme Being, Bhagavan or God, with no beginning or end, the all in all, the unlimited Absolute Truth, who can expand into many forms'''. In this regard, the RigVeda (1:164:45) says: Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha Vadanti. Though sages may call Him by different names (such as Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, etc.) there is but one Absolute Truth, or one source and foundation of everything. God is considered Sat-chit-ananda vigraha, the form of eternal knowledge and bliss. He is supreme, full of beauty, knowledge, is all-powerful and all-pervading. He is also known by His three main features: namely Brahman, the all-pervading, impersonal spiritual force or effulgence; the Paramatma, the localized expansion known as the Supersoul which accompanies every individual soul in the heart of everyone; and then Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality and form of God.
# '''The Vedas are Divine knowledge and the basis or foundation of the Vedic philosophy.''' Some of these texts have been given or spoken by God, and others were composed by sages in their deepest super conscious state in which they were able to give revelations of Universal Truths while in meditation on the Supreme. This Vedic literature, including, among other texts, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, the Upa-Vedas, Vedangas, Shadarshanas, Upanishads, the Vedanta-Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Agamas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavad-gita, and all Puranic literature and the practices congruent with them, contain the basis of the Vedic or Sanatana-dharma spiritual culture.
# '''Bhagawan has appeared throughout history in the form of personal appearances (avataras)''' within the realm of matter, and even in the sound vibration of scriptures (the Vedic literature). There are ten basic avataras of God, with numerous other expansions.
# '''Our real identity is being a spirit soul, or jiva'''.
# '''The law of cause and effect:''' The soul undergoes it’s own karma, by which each person must experience the results or consequences of his activities and creates his own destiny based on his thought, words and deeds.
# '''Rebirth or reincarnation (our next birth is directed by our karma):''' The soul incarnates through different forms until, by its own spiritual development, it reaches liberation (moksha) from the repetition of birth and death, when it attains its natural position in the spiritual domain.
# '''Worship of the Divine''' We can elevate ourselves spiritually by also engaging in worship of the Divine, such as in His forms as deities in the temple.
# '''Guru-Shishya Parampara:''' We can receive proper instruction on how to follow the teachings of the Vedic philosophy from an authorized guru who is in line with a genuine parampara, or line of gurus.
# '''Principles for our spiritual development''', such as ahimsa or non-violence should be followed.
# '''The Four Ashramas (stages):''' In our life there are four main goals, as indicated by the four ashramas of life,
## ''brahmacharya'' (the student’s life),
## ''grihasta'' or the householder stage of life,
## ''Vanaprastha'' or retired stage of life in which we take our spiritual goals more seriously,
## ''Sanyasa'' or renunciation stage of life in which our spiritual purpose is the main focus.
Amongst these stages, first is
# '''Dharma''', which is to develop ourselves morally and spiritually;
# then '''Artha''', which is to develop a career or trade and prosper materially;
# then '''Kama''', to enjoy and work out our basic material desires as is appropriate for our particular stage of life;
# and then retire from all that and focus on '''Moksha''' or attaining Self-realization and freedom from any further rounds of birth and death in material existence.

== Expansion of the ten principles ==
A. The Vedic Tradition is not a religion, '''but a way of life''', ''a complete philosophy for the foundation and direction for one’s existence''.

B. It is ''based on Universal Spiritual Truths'' that can be applied by anyone at anytime.

C. The Vedic tradition recognizes that ''the individual soul is eternal'', beyond the limitations of the body, and that one soul is no different than another.

D. All living entities, both human and otherwise, ''are the same in their essential and divine spiritual being''. All of them are parts of the eternal truth, and have appeared in this world to express their nature and also to gather experience in the realms of matter.

E. For this reason, Vedic followers accept the premise of ''Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, that all living beings in the universe comprise one family,'' and that as such all beings are spiritually equal and should be respected as members within that family of the Supreme.

F. The ultimate purpose of human life is to ''shed all attachments to matter and attain moksha'' (liberation from material existence) and return to the transcendental realm which is not only our true nature but also our real home.

G. Every person’s capacity to progress spiritually depends upon their personal qualities, choices and abilities, and i''s not limited by the circumstances of one’s color, caste, class, or any other circumstance of birth'' or temporary material limitations or designations.

H. The Vedic path is based on ''regaining our natural spiritual identity.'' To pursue this goal, all human beings have the eternal right to choose their personal form of spiritual practice, as well as the right to reject any form of religious activity, and that coercion, forced conversion, or commercial inducement to adopt one religion over another should never be used or tolerated to present, propagate, or enforce one’s spiritual beliefs on others.

I. The Vedic path offers personal freedom for one to make his or her own choice of how he or she wants to pursue their spiritual approach, and what level of the Absolute Truth he or she wishes to understand. This is the height of spiritual democracy and freedom from tyranny.

J. ''Recognizing the value and sanctity of all forms of life,'' as well as ''the Eternal Divine Being that is their true Self'', the Vedic principle is that we should therefore strive in every possible way to peacefully co-exist with all other species of living entities.

== Ten general rules of moral conduct of the Vedic path ==
Of the ten rules of moral conduct five are for inner purity (Yamas) & the other five for external purification (niyamas)—<blockquote>'''''Yamas (for inner purity)''''' </blockquote>
# ''Satya'' or truthfulness,
# ''Ahimsa'' or non-injury to others and treating all beings with respect,
# ''Asteya'' or no cheating or stealing,
# ''Brahmacharya'' or celibacy,
# Aparighara or no unnecessarily selfish accumulation of resources for one’s own purpose.
<blockquote>'''Niyamas (for external purification)'''</blockquote>
# ''Shaucha'' or cleanliness and purity of mind and body,
# Tapas or austerity and perseverance,
# Swadhyaya or study of the Vedas and self-analysis,
# Santosh or contentment,
# Ishwara-pranidhana, or acceptance of the Supreme.

== The ten qualities that are basis of dharmic (righteous) life. ==
# Dhriti (firmness or fortitude),
# Kshama (forgiveness),
# Dama (self-control),
# Asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty),
# Shauch (purity),
# Indriya nigraha (control over the senses),
# Dhih (intellect),
# Vidya (knowledge),
# Satyam (truth)
# Akrodhah (absence of anger).
These principles are part of the eternal, universal truths that apply equally to all living entities who can use them for progress '''''regardless of class, caste, nationality, gender, or any other temporary qualifications.''''' These basic principles, as we can see, are not so difficult to understand and are the basis of the Vedic spiritual life.

== Four basic yoga paths for the individual's spiritual development ==
# '''Karma yoga''', which is the path of right action, detachment from the fruits of one’s labor, and dedicating our activities for a higher and spiritual purpose, especially to God. This is not merely to acquire good karma, but to become free from it altogether to attain moksha.
# '''Jnana yoga''' (pronounced gyana), the path of intellectual development and understanding of what is real and what is not. On a deeper level, jnana yoga is the process of discriminating between truth and non-truth, or reality and illusion (maya), and understanding what is the Divine. This is the knowledge of the soul and God, and the relationship between them. Therefore, the acquirement of jnana or spiritual knowledge is one of the first steps in spiritual development.
# '''Raja or dhyana yoga,''' known as the royal (raja) way, also called astanga yoga, is the eightfold path leading to liberation. From either hatha yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga, a person may go on to practice raja yoga. It is one of the most popular systems of yoga today.
## '''''Calming all mental agitation'',''' which gradually helps the meditator to fuse with the objects of meditation by supraconscious concentration.
## Patanjali defined in the Yoga Sutras the eight steps of this path, consisting of the first two steps as following the '''''yamas and niyamas''''' or the essential rules of moral conduct, explained above.
## '''''Asana''''', which means a seat or postures for meditation that are often used in hatha yoga.
## Pranayama, breath control for fixing the mind in concentration. Prana means life or energy, and also can mean spirit. Ayama indicates the length and retention of breath between inhalation and exhalation, and control of the prana within the body.
## The fifth step is pratyahara, control of the senses and checking the mind’s attraction to external objects.
## sixth step is dharana, concentrating on the object of meditation. The seventh step is dhyana, when the mind is in a state of undisturbed flowing meditation. This leads to the eighth step which is samadhi, in which, according to the eightfold path, the yogi becomes one with the Supreme, or fully engaged in thought of the Supreme. This ultimately reaches to moksha if performed diligently and steadily. However, this is an arduous path and much more explanation is required.
# '''Bhakti yoga''' is the final form of spiritual realization and attainment of the spiritual world. It is the process of simply developing loving devotional service to the Bhagawan. It is by far the easiest of all the yoga processes and has fewer requirements for the practitioners than any other process. Bhakti is the yoga that begins, continues, and ends with love and devotion to the Supreme. There is no stronger binding mechanism than love, and spiritual love is the natural sentiment that emanates from God and connects all living beings. Thus, it is said that attaining this sentiment of devotion to God holds the sum and substance of all other yoga processes and religions. It is the strength of this connection that can deliver one to the spiritual realm or God’s domain.

== Some important points of Sanatana Dharma ==
* A formal process of conversion to Sanatana-dharma is not necessary because the principles, as outlined above, can be practiced by anyone at any time, or to any degree one wishes.
* Anyone can be on the path of Sanatana-dharma merely by adopting this way of life.
* It is not an institution that you need to join that makes you a follower/
* It is the acceptance of it in your heart and the practices that you adopt.
* However, you can approach a guru of your choice who inspires you and can guide you and then ask for diksha, or initiation, by which you may then accept a formal ritual as a qualified follower of the Vedic path in the school of thought or parampara that your guru represents. Then you may receive a spiritual name, indicating your dedication and change of spiritual orientation, or even further take an initiation as a priest or brahmana.

== References ==
# http://www.swamij.com/sanatana-dharma-what-is.htm Posted by Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati | Articles on Tradition
# http://www.pragyata.com/mag/sanatanadharmahinduism-in-a-nutshell-325 Posted by Stephen Knapp | Feb 22, 2017

Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)

2017-09-01T10:39:38Z

P16232: /* Ten general rules of moral conduct of the Vedic path */

== What is Sanatana Dharma ==
<blockquote>'''Sanatana means eternal, never beginning nor ending.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Dharma is from dhri, meaning to hold together, to sustain.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma eternally holds All together.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma means:'''</blockquote>
* '''Eternal Path'''
* '''Never Beginning nor Ending Way'''
* '''Perennial Philosophy'''
* '''Universal Tradition'''
* '''All-Pervading Truth'''
* '''Natural Flow'''

== Introduction ==
Some people think that Hinduism or Vedic philosophy is difficult to understand, and, thus, hard to explain. But if you look at it succinctly, it is not very difficult at all. All you have to do is know what to say. So this little article presents the essential principles in a concise way that everyone can learn and repeat when necessary. Hinduism is also more correctly called by its Sanskrit name: Sanatana-Dharma.

=== Meaning of Sanatana Dharma ===
This, essentially, means to follow one’s eternal duty, which is to search for and understand our spiritual identity, and then to learn to live according to those eternal and spiritual characteristics, especially by one’s own spiritual realizations. This is also the purpose and mission of the Vedic philosophy and culture, and our ultimate duty in human life.

=== The Vedic philosophy, (that which is based on the ancient Vedas and its supporting literature of India) ===
* to help humanity understand who we really are, and the purpose of life. It is like the manual you get when you buy an appliance and need to understand exactly how it works. The Vedic literature is there to help all of us.

== 10 basic principles of Sanatana Dharma ==
These are the ones most accepted by the majority of people who follow Sanatana-dharma, and are also referenced in the Vedic texts. Beyond these, there are various schools of thought, which have further developments in their own outlook and philosophy, such as the ''Shaivites, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, Brahmanandis, Tantrics,'' and so on.
# '''There is one Supreme Being, Bhagavan or God, with no beginning or end, the all in all, the unlimited Absolute Truth, who can expand into many forms'''. In this regard, the RigVeda (1:164:45) says: Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha Vadanti. Though sages may call Him by different names (such as Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, etc.) there is but one Absolute Truth, or one source and foundation of everything. God is considered Sat-chit-ananda vigraha, the form of eternal knowledge and bliss. He is supreme, full of beauty, knowledge, is all-powerful and all-pervading. He is also known by His three main features: namely Brahman, the all-pervading, impersonal spiritual force or effulgence; the Paramatma, the localized expansion known as the Supersoul which accompanies every individual soul in the heart of everyone; and then Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality and form of God.
# '''The Vedas are Divine knowledge and the basis or foundation of the Vedic philosophy.''' Some of these texts have been given or spoken by God, and others were composed by sages in their deepest super conscious state in which they were able to give revelations of Universal Truths while in meditation on the Supreme. This Vedic literature, including, among other texts, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, the Upa-Vedas, Vedangas, Shadarshanas, Upanishads, the Vedanta-Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Agamas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavad-gita, and all Puranic literature and the practices congruent with them, contain the basis of the Vedic or Sanatana-dharma spiritual culture.
# '''Bhagawan has appeared throughout history in the form of personal appearances (avataras)''' within the realm of matter, and even in the sound vibration of scriptures (the Vedic literature). There are ten basic avataras of God, with numerous other expansions.
# '''Our real identity is being a spirit soul, or jiva'''.
# '''The law of cause and effect:''' The soul undergoes it’s own karma, by which each person must experience the results or consequences of his activities and creates his own destiny based on his thought, words and deeds.
# '''Rebirth or reincarnation (our next birth is directed by our karma):''' The soul incarnates through different forms until, by its own spiritual development, it reaches liberation (moksha) from the repetition of birth and death, when it attains its natural position in the spiritual domain.
# '''Worship of the Divine''' We can elevate ourselves spiritually by also engaging in worship of the Divine, such as in His forms as deities in the temple.
# '''Guru-Shishya Parampara:''' We can receive proper instruction on how to follow the teachings of the Vedic philosophy from an authorized guru who is in line with a genuine parampara, or line of gurus.
# '''Principles for our spiritual development''', such as ahimsa or non-violence should be followed.
# '''The Four Ashramas (stages):''' In our life there are four main goals, as indicated by the four ashramas of life,
## ''brahmacharya'' (the student’s life),
## ''grihasta'' or the householder stage of life,
## ''Vanaprastha'' or retired stage of life in which we take our spiritual goals more seriously,
## ''Sanyasa'' or renunciation stage of life in which our spiritual purpose is the main focus.
Amongst these stages, first is
# '''Dharma''', which is to develop ourselves morally and spiritually;
# then '''Artha''', which is to develop a career or trade and prosper materially;
# then '''Kama''', to enjoy and work out our basic material desires as is appropriate for our particular stage of life;
# and then retire from all that and focus on '''Moksha''' or attaining Self-realization and freedom from any further rounds of birth and death in material existence.

== Expansion of the ten principles ==
A. The Vedic Tradition is not a religion, '''but a way of life''', ''a complete philosophy for the foundation and direction for one’s existence''.

B. It is ''based on Universal Spiritual Truths'' that can be applied by anyone at anytime.

C. The Vedic tradition recognizes that ''the individual soul is eternal'', beyond the limitations of the body, and that one soul is no different than another.

D. All living entities, both human and otherwise, ''are the same in their essential and divine spiritual being''. All of them are parts of the eternal truth, and have appeared in this world to express their nature and also to gather experience in the realms of matter.

E. For this reason, Vedic followers accept the premise of ''Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, that all living beings in the universe comprise one family,'' and that as such all beings are spiritually equal and should be respected as members within that family of the Supreme.

F. The ultimate purpose of human life is to ''shed all attachments to matter and attain moksha'' (liberation from material existence) and return to the transcendental realm which is not only our true nature but also our real home.

G. Every person’s capacity to progress spiritually depends upon their personal qualities, choices and abilities, and i''s not limited by the circumstances of one’s color, caste, class, or any other circumstance of birth'' or temporary material limitations or designations.

H. The Vedic path is based on ''regaining our natural spiritual identity.'' To pursue this goal, all human beings have the eternal right to choose their personal form of spiritual practice, as well as the right to reject any form of religious activity, and that coercion, forced conversion, or commercial inducement to adopt one religion over another should never be used or tolerated to present, propagate, or enforce one’s spiritual beliefs on others.

I. The Vedic path offers personal freedom for one to make his or her own choice of how he or she wants to pursue their spiritual approach, and what level of the Absolute Truth he or she wishes to understand. This is the height of spiritual democracy and freedom from tyranny.

J. ''Recognizing the value and sanctity of all forms of life,'' as well as ''the Eternal Divine Being that is their true Self'', the Vedic principle is that we should therefore strive in every possible way to peacefully co-exist with all other species of living entities.

== Ten general rules of moral conduct of the Vedic path ==
Of the ten rules of moral conduct five are for inner purity (Yamas) & the other five for external purification (niyamas)—<blockquote>'''''Yamas (for inner purity)''''' </blockquote>
# ''Satya'' or truthfulness,
# ''Ahimsa'' or non-injury to others and treating all beings with respect,
# ''Asteya'' or no cheating or stealing,
# ''Brahmacharya'' or celibacy,
# Aparighara or no unnecessarily selfish accumulation of resources for one’s own purpose.
<blockquote>'''Niyamas (for external purification)'''</blockquote>
# ''Shaucha'' or cleanliness and purity of mind and body,
# Tapas or austerity and perseverance,
# Swadhyaya or study of the Vedas and self-analysis,
# Santosh or contentment,
# Ishwara-pranidhana, or acceptance of the Supreme.

== The ten qualities that are basis of dharmic (righteous) life. ==
# Dhriti (firmness or fortitude),
# Kshama (forgiveness),
# Dama (self-control),
# Asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty),
# Shauch (purity),
# Indriya nigraha (control over the senses),
# Dhih (intellect),
# Vidya (knowledge),
# Satyam (truth)
# Akrodhah (absence of anger).
These principles are part of the eternal, universal truths that apply equally to all living entities who can use them for progress '''''regardless of class, caste, nationality, gender, or any other temporary qualifications.''''' These basic principles, as we can see, are not so difficult to understand and are the basis of the Vedic spiritual life.

== Four basic yoga paths for the individual's spiritual development ==
# '''Karma yoga''', which is the path of right action, detachment from the fruits of one’s labor, and dedicating our activities for a higher and spiritual purpose, especially to God. This is not merely to acquire good karma, but to become free from it altogether to attain moksha.
# '''Jnana yoga''' (pronounced gyana), the path of intellectual development and understanding of what is real and what is not. On a deeper level, jnana yoga is the process of discriminating between truth and non-truth, or reality and illusion (maya), and understanding what is the Divine. This is the knowledge of the soul and God, and the relationship between them. Therefore, the acquirement of jnana or spiritual knowledge is one of the first steps in spiritual development.
# '''Raja or dhyana yoga,''' known as the royal (raja) way, also called astanga yoga, is the eightfold path leading to liberation. From either hatha yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga, a person may go on to practice raja yoga. It is one of the most popular systems of yoga today. The process involves calming all mental agitation, which gradually helps the meditator to fuse with the objects of meditation by supraconscious concentration. Patanjali defined in the Yoga Sutras the eight steps of this path, consisting of the first two steps as following the yamas and niyamas or the essential rules of moral conduct, explained above. The third step is asana, which means a seat or postures for meditation that are often used in hatha yoga. The fourth step is pranayama, breath control for fixing the mind in concentration. Prana means life or energy, and also can mean spirit. Ayama indicates the length and retention of breath between inhalation and exhalation, and control of the prana within the body. The fifth step is pratyahara, control of the senses and checking the mind’s attraction to external objects. The sixth step is dharana, concentrating on the object of meditation. The seventh step is dhyana, when the mind is in a state of undisturbed flowing meditation. This leads to the eighth step which is samadhi, in which, according to the eightfold path, the yogi becomes one with the Supreme, or fully engaged in thought of the Supreme. This ultimately reaches to moksha if performed diligently and steadily. However, this is an arduous path and much more explanation is required.
Bhakti yoga is the final form of spiritual realization and attainment of the spiritual world. It is the process of simply developing loving devotional service to the Lord. It is by far the easiest of all the yoga processes and has fewer requirements for the practitioners than any other process. Bhakti is the yoga that begins, continues, and ends with love and devotion to the Supreme. There is no stronger binding mechanism than love, and spiritual love is the natural sentiment that emanates from God and connects all living beings. Thus, it is said that attaining this sentiment of devotion to God holds the sum and substance of all other yoga processes and religions. It is the strength of this connection that can deliver one to the spiritual realm or God’s domain.

A formal process of conversion to Sanatana-dharma is not necessary because the principles, as outlined above, can be practiced by anyone at any time, or to any degree one wishes. Thus, anyone can be on the path of Sanatana-dharma merely by adopting this way of life. It is not an institution that you need to join that makes you a follower, but it is the acceptance of it in your heart and the practices that you adopt. However, you can approach a guru of your choice who inspires you and can guide you and then ask for diksha, or initiation, by which you may then accept a formal ritual as a qualified follower of the Vedic path in the school of thought or parampara that your guru represents. Then you may receive a spiritual name, indicating your dedication and change of spiritual orientation, or even further take an initiation as a priest or brahmana.

== References ==
# http://www.swamij.com/sanatana-dharma-what-is.htm Posted by Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati | Articles on Tradition
# http://www.pragyata.com/mag/sanatanadharmahinduism-in-a-nutshell-325 Posted by Stephen Knapp | Feb 22, 2017

Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)

2017-09-01T10:26:41Z

P16232:

== What is Sanatana Dharma ==
<blockquote>'''Sanatana means eternal, never beginning nor ending.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Dharma is from dhri, meaning to hold together, to sustain.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma eternally holds All together.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma means:'''</blockquote>
* '''Eternal Path'''
* '''Never Beginning nor Ending Way'''
* '''Perennial Philosophy'''
* '''Universal Tradition'''
* '''All-Pervading Truth'''
* '''Natural Flow'''

== Introduction ==
Some people think that Hinduism or Vedic philosophy is difficult to understand, and, thus, hard to explain. But if you look at it succinctly, it is not very difficult at all. All you have to do is know what to say. So this little article presents the essential principles in a concise way that everyone can learn and repeat when necessary. Hinduism is also more correctly called by its Sanskrit name: Sanatana-Dharma.

=== Meaning of Sanatana Dharma ===
This, essentially, means to follow one’s eternal duty, which is to search for and understand our spiritual identity, and then to learn to live according to those eternal and spiritual characteristics, especially by one’s own spiritual realizations. This is also the purpose and mission of the Vedic philosophy and culture, and our ultimate duty in human life.

=== The Vedic philosophy, (that which is based on the ancient Vedas and its supporting literature of India) ===
* to help humanity understand who we really are, and the purpose of life. It is like the manual you get when you buy an appliance and need to understand exactly how it works. The Vedic literature is there to help all of us.

== 10 basic principles of Sanatana Dharma ==
These are the ones most accepted by the majority of people who follow Sanatana-dharma, and are also referenced in the Vedic texts. Beyond these, there are various schools of thought, which have further developments in their own outlook and philosophy, such as the ''Shaivites, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, Brahmanandis, Tantrics,'' and so on.
# '''There is one Supreme Being, Bhagavan or God, with no beginning or end, the all in all, the unlimited Absolute Truth, who can expand into many forms'''. In this regard, the RigVeda (1:164:45) says: Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha Vadanti. Though sages may call Him by different names (such as Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, etc.) there is but one Absolute Truth, or one source and foundation of everything. God is considered Sat-chit-ananda vigraha, the form of eternal knowledge and bliss. He is supreme, full of beauty, knowledge, is all-powerful and all-pervading. He is also known by His three main features: namely Brahman, the all-pervading, impersonal spiritual force or effulgence; the Paramatma, the localized expansion known as the Supersoul which accompanies every individual soul in the heart of everyone; and then Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality and form of God.
# '''The Vedas are Divine knowledge and the basis or foundation of the Vedic philosophy.''' Some of these texts have been given or spoken by God, and others were composed by sages in their deepest super conscious state in which they were able to give revelations of Universal Truths while in meditation on the Supreme. This Vedic literature, including, among other texts, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, the Upa-Vedas, Vedangas, Shadarshanas, Upanishads, the Vedanta-Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Agamas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavad-gita, and all Puranic literature and the practices congruent with them, contain the basis of the Vedic or Sanatana-dharma spiritual culture.
# '''Bhagawan has appeared throughout history in the form of personal appearances (avataras)''' within the realm of matter, and even in the sound vibration of scriptures (the Vedic literature). There are ten basic avataras of God, with numerous other expansions.
# '''Our real identity is being a spirit soul, or jiva'''.
# '''The law of cause and effect:''' The soul undergoes it’s own karma, by which each person must experience the results or consequences of his activities and creates his own destiny based on his thought, words and deeds.
# '''Rebirth or reincarnation (our next birth is directed by our karma):''' The soul incarnates through different forms until, by its own spiritual development, it reaches liberation (moksha) from the repetition of birth and death, when it attains its natural position in the spiritual domain.
# '''Worship of the Divine''' We can elevate ourselves spiritually by also engaging in worship of the Divine, such as in His forms as deities in the temple.
# '''Guru-Shishya Parampara:''' We can receive proper instruction on how to follow the teachings of the Vedic philosophy from an authorized guru who is in line with a genuine parampara, or line of gurus.
# '''Principles for our spiritual development''', such as ahimsa or non-violence should be followed.
# '''The Four Ashramas (stages):''' In our life there are four main goals, as indicated by the four ashramas of life,
## ''brahmacharya'' (the student’s life),
## ''grihasta'' or the householder stage of life,
## ''Vanaprastha'' or retired stage of life in which we take our spiritual goals more seriously,
## ''Sanyasa'' or renunciation stage of life in which our spiritual purpose is the main focus.
Amongst these stages, first is
# '''Dharma''', which is to develop ourselves morally and spiritually;
# then '''Artha''', which is to develop a career or trade and prosper materially;
# then '''Kama''', to enjoy and work out our basic material desires as is appropriate for our particular stage of life;
# and then retire from all that and focus on '''Moksha''' or attaining Self-realization and freedom from any further rounds of birth and death in material existence.

== Expansion of the ten principles ==
A. The Vedic Tradition is not a religion, '''but a way of life''', ''a complete philosophy for the foundation and direction for one’s existence''.

B. It is ''based on Universal Spiritual Truths'' that can be applied by anyone at anytime.

C. The Vedic tradition recognizes that ''the individual soul is eternal'', beyond the limitations of the body, and that one soul is no different than another.

D. All living entities, both human and otherwise, ''are the same in their essential and divine spiritual being''. All of them are parts of the eternal truth, and have appeared in this world to express their nature and also to gather experience in the realms of matter.

E. For this reason, Vedic followers accept the premise of ''Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, that all living beings in the universe comprise one family,'' and that as such all beings are spiritually equal and should be respected as members within that family of the Supreme.

F. The ultimate purpose of human life is to ''shed all attachments to matter and attain moksha'' (liberation from material existence) and return to the transcendental realm which is not only our true nature but also our real home.

G. Every person’s capacity to progress spiritually depends upon their personal qualities, choices and abilities, and i''s not limited by the circumstances of one’s color, caste, class, or any other circumstance of birth'' or temporary material limitations or designations.

H. The Vedic path is based on ''regaining our natural spiritual identity.'' To pursue this goal, all human beings have the eternal right to choose their personal form of spiritual practice, as well as the right to reject any form of religious activity, and that coercion, forced conversion, or commercial inducement to adopt one religion over another should never be used or tolerated to present, propagate, or enforce one’s spiritual beliefs on others.

I. The Vedic path offers personal freedom for one to make his or her own choice of how he or she wants to pursue their spiritual approach, and what level of the Absolute Truth he or she wishes to understand. This is the height of spiritual democracy and freedom from tyranny.

J. ''Recognizing the value and sanctity of all forms of life,'' as well as ''the Eternal Divine Being that is their true Self'', the Vedic principle is that we should therefore strive in every possible way to peacefully co-exist with all other species of living entities.

== Ten general rules of moral conduct of the Vedic path ==
Of the ten rules of moral conduct five are for inner purity (Yamas) & the other five for external purification (niyamas)—<blockquote>'''''Yamas (for inner purity)''''' </blockquote>
# ''Satya'' or truthfulness,
# ''Ahimsa'' or non-injury to others and treating all beings with respect,
# ''Asteya'' or no cheating or stealing,
# ''Brahmacharya'' or celibacy,
# Aparighara or no unnecessarily selfish accumulation of resources for one’s own purpose.
<blockquote>'''Niyamas (for external purification)'''</blockquote>
# Shaucha or cleanliness and purity of mind and body,
# Tapas or austerity and perseverance,
# Swadhyaya or study of the Vedas and self-analysis,
# Santosh or contentment,
# Ishwara-pranidhana, or acceptance of the Supreme.
L. There are also ten qualities that are the basis of dharmic (righteous) life. These are dhriti (firmness or fortitude), kshama (forgiveness), dama (self-control), asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty), shauch (purity), indriya nigraha (control over the senses), dhih (intellect), vidya (knowledge), satyam (truth) and akrodhah (absence of anger).

These principles are part of the eternal, universal truths that apply equally to all living entities who can use them for progress regardless of class, caste, nationality, gender, or any other temporary qualifications. These basic principles, as we can see, are not so difficult to understand and are the basis of the Vedic spiritual life.

There are also four basic yoga paths for the spiritual development of the individual. These include the following:

Karma yoga, which is the path of right action, detachment from the fruits of one’s labor, and dedicating our activities for a higher and spiritual purpose, especially to God. This is not merely to acquire good karma, but to become free from it altogether to attain moksha.

Jnana yoga (pronounced gyana), the path of intellectual development and understanding of what is real and what is not. On a deeper level, jnana yoga is the process of discriminating between truth and non-truth, or reality and illusion (maya), and understanding what is the Divine. This is the knowledge of the soul and God, and the relationship between them. Therefore, the acquirement of jnana or spiritual knowledge is one of the first steps in spiritual development.

Raja or dhyana yoga, known as the royal (raja) way, also called astanga yoga, is the eightfold path leading to liberation. From either hatha yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga, a person may go on to practice raja yoga. It is one of the most popular systems of yoga today. The process involves calming all mental agitation, which gradually helps the meditator to fuse with the objects of meditation by supraconscious concentration. Patanajali defined in the Yoga Sutras the eight steps of this path, consisting of the first two steps as following the yamas and niyamas, or the essential moral commandments, which was briefly explained in item K above.

The third step is asana, which means a seat or postures for meditation that are often used in hatha yoga. The fourth step is pranayama, breath control for fixing the mind in concentration. Prana means life or energy, and also can mean spirit. Ayama indicates the length and retention of breath between inhalation and exhalation, and control of the prana within the body. The fifth step is pratyahara, control of the senses and checking the mind’s attraction to external objects. The sixth step is dharana, concentrating on the object of meditation. The seventh step is dhyana, when the mind is in a state of undisturbed flowing meditation. This leads to the eighth step which is samadhi, in which, according to the eightfold path, the yogi becomes one with the Supreme, or fully engaged in thought of the Supreme. This ultimately reaches to moksha if performed diligently and steadily. However, this is an arduous path and much more explanation is required.

Bhakti yoga is the final form of spiritual realization and attainment of the spiritual world. It is the process of simply developing loving devotional service to the Lord. It is by far the easiest of all the yoga processes and has fewer requirements for the practitioners than any other process. Bhakti is the yoga that begins, continues, and ends with love and devotion to the Supreme. There is no stronger binding mechanism than love, and spiritual love is the natural sentiment that emanates from God and connects all living beings. Thus, it is said that attaining this sentiment of devotion to God holds the sum and substance of all other yoga processes and religions. It is the strength of this connection that can deliver one to the spiritual realm or God’s domain.

A formal process of conversion to Sanatana-dharma is not necessary because the principles, as outlined above, can be practiced by anyone at any time, or to any degree one wishes. Thus, anyone can be on the path of Sanatana-dharma merely by adopting this way of life. It is not an institution that you need to join that makes you a follower, but it is the acceptance of it in your heart and the practices that you adopt. However, you can approach a guru of your choice who inspires you and can guide you and then ask for diksha, or initiation, by which you may then accept a formal ritual as a qualified follower of the Vedic path in the school of thought or parampara that your guru represents. Then you may receive a spiritual name, indicating your dedication and change of spiritual orientation, or even further take an initiation as a priest or brahmana.

== References ==
# http://www.swamij.com/sanatana-dharma-what-is.htm Posted by Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati | Articles on Tradition
# http://www.pragyata.com/mag/sanatanadharmahinduism-in-a-nutshell-325 Posted by Stephen Knapp | Feb 22, 2017

Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)

2017-09-01T10:10:17Z

P16232: /* Introduction */

== What is Sanatana Dharma ==
<blockquote>'''Sanatana means eternal, never beginning nor ending.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Dharma is from dhri, meaning to hold together, to sustain.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma eternally holds All together.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma means:'''</blockquote>
* '''Eternal Path'''
* '''Never Beginning nor Ending Way'''
* '''Perennial Philosophy'''
* '''Universal Tradition'''
* '''All-Pervading Truth'''
* '''Natural Flow'''

== Introduction ==
Some people think that Hinduism or Vedic philosophy is difficult to understand, and, thus, hard to explain. But if you look at it succinctly, it is not very difficult at all. All you have to do is know what to say. So this little article presents the essential principles in a concise way that everyone can learn and repeat when necessary. Hinduism is also more correctly called by its Sanskrit name: Sanatana-Dharma.

=== Meaning of Sanatana Dharma ===
This, essentially, means to follow one’s eternal duty, which is to search for and understand our spiritual identity, and then to learn to live according to those eternal and spiritual characteristics, especially by one’s own spiritual realizations. This is also the purpose and mission of the Vedic philosophy and culture, and our ultimate duty in human life.

=== The Vedic philosophy, (that which is based on the ancient Vedas and its supporting literature of India) ===
* to help humanity understand who we really are, and the purpose of life. It is like the manual you get when you buy an appliance and need to understand exactly how it works. The Vedic literature is there to help all of us.

== 10 basic principles of Sanatana Dharma ==
These are the ones most accepted by the majority of people who follow Sanatana-dharma, and are also referenced in the Vedic texts. Beyond these, there are various schools of thought, which have further developments in their own outlook and philosophy, such as the ''Shaivites, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, Brahmanandis, Tantrics,'' and so on.
# '''There is one Supreme Being, Bhagavan or God, with no beginning or end, the all in all, the unlimited Absolute Truth, who can expand into many forms'''. In this regard, the RigVeda (1:164:45) says: Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha Vadanti. Though sages may call Him by different names (such as Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, etc.) there is but one Absolute Truth, or one source and foundation of everything. God is considered Sat-chit-ananda vigraha, the form of eternal knowledge and bliss. He is supreme, full of beauty, knowledge, is all-powerful and all-pervading. He is also known by His three main features: namely Brahman, the all-pervading, impersonal spiritual force or effulgence; the Paramatma, the localized expansion known as the Supersoul which accompanies every individual soul in the heart of everyone; and then Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality and form of God.
# '''The Vedas are Divine knowledge and the basis or foundation of the Vedic philosophy.''' Some of these texts have been given or spoken by God, and others were composed by sages in their deepest super conscious state in which they were able to give revelations of Universal Truths while in meditation on the Supreme. This Vedic literature, including, among other texts, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, the Upa-Vedas, Vedangas, Shadarshanas, Upanishads, the Vedanta-Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Agamas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavad-gita, and all Puranic literature and the practices congruent with them, contain the basis of the Vedic or Sanatana-dharma spiritual culture.
# '''Bhagawan has appeared throughout history in the form of personal appearances (avataras)''' within the realm of matter, and even in the sound vibration of scriptures (the Vedic literature). There are ten basic avataras of God, with numerous other expansions.
# '''Our real identity is being a spirit soul, or jiva'''.
# '''The law of cause and effect:''' The soul undergoes it’s own karma, by which each person must experience the results or consequences of his activities and creates his own destiny based on his thought, words and deeds.
# '''Rebirth or reincarnation (our next birth is directed by our karma):''' The soul incarnates through different forms until, by its own spiritual development, it reaches liberation (moksha) from the repetition of birth and death, when it attains its natural position in the spiritual domain.
# '''Worship of the Divine''' We can elevate ourselves spiritually by also engaging in worship of the Divine, such as in His forms as deities in the temple.
# '''Guru-Shishya Parampara:''' We can receive proper instruction on how to follow the teachings of the Vedic philosophy from an authorized guru who is in line with a genuine parampara, or line of gurus.
# '''Principles for our spiritual development''', such as ahimsa or non-violence should be followed.
# '''The Four Ashramas (stages):''' In our life there are four main goals, as indicated by the four ashramas of life,
## ''brahmacharya'' (the student’s life),
## ''grihasta'' or the householder stage of life,
## ''Vanaprastha'' or retired stage of life in which we take our spiritual goals more seriously,
## ''Sanyasa'' or renunciation stage of life in which our spiritual purpose is the main focus.
Amongst these stages, first is
# '''Dharma''', which is to develop ourselves morally and spiritually;
# then '''Artha''', which is to develop a career or trade and prosper materially;
# then '''Kama''', to enjoy and work out our basic material desires as is appropriate for our particular stage of life;
# and then retire from all that and focus on '''Moksha''' or attaining Self-realization and freedom from any further rounds of birth and death in material existence.

== Expansion of the ten principles ==
A. The Vedic Tradition is not a religion, '''but a way of life''', ''a complete philosophy for the foundation and direction for one’s existence''.

B. It is ''based on Universal Spiritual Truths'' that can be applied by anyone at anytime.

C. The Vedic tradition recognizes that ''the individual soul is eternal'', beyond the limitations of the body, and that one soul is no different than another.

D. All living entities, both human and otherwise, ''are the same in their essential and divine spiritual being''. All of them are parts of the eternal truth, and have appeared in this world to express their nature and also to gather experience in the realms of matter.

E. For this reason, Vedic followers accept the premise of ''Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, that all living beings in the universe comprise one family,'' and that as such all beings are spiritually equal and should be respected as members within that family of the Supreme.

F. The ultimate purpose of human life is to ''shed all attachments to matter and attain moksha'' (liberation from material existence) and return to the transcendental realm which is not only our true nature but also our real home.

G. Every person’s capacity to progress spiritually depends upon their personal qualities, choices and abilities, and i''s not limited by the circumstances of one’s color, caste, class, or any other circumstance of birth'' or temporary material limitations or designations.

H. The Vedic path is based on ''regaining our natural spiritual identity.'' To pursue this goal, all human beings have the eternal right to choose their personal form of spiritual practice, as well as the right to reject any form of religious activity, and that coercion, forced conversion, or commercial inducement to adopt one religion over another should never be used or tolerated to present, propagate, or enforce one’s spiritual beliefs on others.

I. The Vedic path offers personal freedom for one to make his or her own choice of how he or she wants to pursue their spiritual approach, and what level of the Absolute Truth he or she wishes to understand. This is the height of spiritual democracy and freedom from tyranny.

J. Recognizing the value and sanctity of all forms of life, as well as the Eternal Divine Being that is their true Self, the Vedic principle is that we should therefore strive in every possible way to peacefully co-exist with all other species of living entities.

K. The Vedic path consists of ten general rules of moral conduct. There are five for inner purity, called the yamas—which include satya or truthfulness, ahimsa or non-injury to others and treating all beings with respect, asteya or no cheating or stealing, brahmacharya or celibacy, and aparighara or no unnecessarily selfish accumulation of resources for one’s own purpose. The five rules of conduct for external purification are the niyamas—such as shaucha or cleanliness and purity of mind and body, tapas or austerity and perseverance, swadhyaya or study of the Vedas and self-analysis, and santosh or contentment, as well as Ishwara-pranidhana, or acceptance of the Supreme.

L. There are also ten qualities that are the basis of dharmic (righteous) life. These are dhriti (firmness or fortitude), kshama (forgiveness), dama (self-control), asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty), shauch (purity), indriya nigraha (control over the senses), dhih (intellect), vidya (knowledge), satyam (truth) and akrodhah (absence of anger).

These principles are part of the eternal, universal truths that apply equally to all living entities who can use them for progress regardless of class, caste, nationality, gender, or any other temporary qualifications. These basic principles, as we can see, are not so difficult to understand and are the basis of the Vedic spiritual life.

There are also four basic yoga paths for the spiritual development of the individual. These include the following:

Karma yoga, which is the path of right action, detachment from the fruits of one’s labor, and dedicating our activities for a higher and spiritual purpose, especially to God. This is not merely to acquire good karma, but to become free from it altogether to attain moksha.

Jnana yoga (pronounced gyana), the path of intellectual development and understanding of what is real and what is not. On a deeper level, jnana yoga is the process of discriminating between truth and non-truth, or reality and illusion (maya), and understanding what is the Divine. This is the knowledge of the soul and God, and the relationship between them. Therefore, the acquirement of jnana or spiritual knowledge is one of the first steps in spiritual development.

Raja or dhyana yoga, known as the royal (raja) way, also called astanga yoga, is the eightfold path leading to liberation. From either hatha yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga, a person may go on to practice raja yoga. It is one of the most popular systems of yoga today. The process involves calming all mental agitation, which gradually helps the meditator to fuse with the objects of meditation by supraconscious concentration. Patanajali defined in the Yoga Sutras the eight steps of this path, consisting of the first two steps as following the yamas and niyamas, or the essential moral commandments, which was briefly explained in item K above.

The third step is asana, which means a seat or postures for meditation that are often used in hatha yoga. The fourth step is pranayama, breath control for fixing the mind in concentration. Prana means life or energy, and also can mean spirit. Ayama indicates the length and retention of breath between inhalation and exhalation, and control of the prana within the body. The fifth step is pratyahara, control of the senses and checking the mind’s attraction to external objects. The sixth step is dharana, concentrating on the object of meditation. The seventh step is dhyana, when the mind is in a state of undisturbed flowing meditation. This leads to the eighth step which is samadhi, in which, according to the eightfold path, the yogi becomes one with the Supreme, or fully engaged in thought of the Supreme. This ultimately reaches to moksha if performed diligently and steadily. However, this is an arduous path and much more explanation is required.

Bhakti yoga is the final form of spiritual realization and attainment of the spiritual world. It is the process of simply developing loving devotional service to the Lord. It is by far the easiest of all the yoga processes and has fewer requirements for the practitioners than any other process. Bhakti is the yoga that begins, continues, and ends with love and devotion to the Supreme. There is no stronger binding mechanism than love, and spiritual love is the natural sentiment that emanates from God and connects all living beings. Thus, it is said that attaining this sentiment of devotion to God holds the sum and substance of all other yoga processes and religions. It is the strength of this connection that can deliver one to the spiritual realm or God’s domain.

A formal process of conversion to Sanatana-dharma is not necessary because the principles, as outlined above, can be practiced by anyone at any time, or to any degree one wishes. Thus, anyone can be on the path of Sanatana-dharma merely by adopting this way of life. It is not an institution that you need to join that makes you a follower, but it is the acceptance of it in your heart and the practices that you adopt. However, you can approach a guru of your choice who inspires you and can guide you and then ask for diksha, or initiation, by which you may then accept a formal ritual as a qualified follower of the Vedic path in the school of thought or parampara that your guru represents. Then you may receive a spiritual name, indicating your dedication and change of spiritual orientation, or even further take an initiation as a priest or brahmana.

== References ==
# http://www.swamij.com/sanatana-dharma-what-is.htm Posted by Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati | Articles on Tradition
# http://www.pragyata.com/mag/sanatanadharmahinduism-in-a-nutshell-325 Posted by Stephen Knapp | Feb 22, 2017

Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)

2017-09-01T09:55:02Z

P16232: /* Meaning of Sanatana Dharma */

== What is Sanatana Dharma ==
<blockquote>'''Sanatana means eternal, never beginning nor ending.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Dharma is from dhri, meaning to hold together, to sustain.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma eternally holds All together.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma means:'''</blockquote>
* '''Eternal Path'''
* '''Never Beginning nor Ending Way'''
* '''Perennial Philosophy'''
* '''Universal Tradition'''
* '''All-Pervading Truth'''
* '''Natural Flow'''

== Introduction ==
Some people think that Hinduism or Vedic philosophy is difficult to understand, and, thus, hard to explain. But if you look at it succinctly, it is not very difficult at all. All you have to do is know what to say. So this little article presents the essential principles in a concise way that everyone can learn and repeat when necessary. Hinduism is also more correctly called by its Sanskrit name: Sanatana-Dharma.

=== Meaning of Sanatana Dharma ===
This, essentially, means to follow one’s eternal duty, which is to search for and understand our spiritual identity, and then to learn to live according to those eternal and spiritual characteristics, especially by one’s own spiritual realizations. This is also the purpose and mission of the Vedic philosophy and culture, and our ultimate duty in human life.

=== The Vedic philosophy, (that which is based on the ancient Vedas and its supporting literature of India) ===
* to help humanity understand who we really are, and the purpose of life. It is like the manual you get when you buy an appliance and need to understand exactly how it works. The Vedic literature is there to help all of us.

== 10 basic principles of Sanatana Dharma ==
These are the ones most accepted by the majority of people who follow Sanatana-dharma, and are also referenced in the Vedic texts. Beyond these, there are various schools of thought, which have further developments in their own outlook and philosophy, such as the ''Shaivites, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, Brahmanandis, Tantrics,'' and so on.
# '''There is one Supreme Being, Bhagavan or God, with no beginning or end, the all in all, the unlimited Absolute Truth, who can expand into many forms'''. In this regard, the RigVeda (1:164:45) says: Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha Vadanti. Though sages may call Him by different names (such as Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, etc.) there is but one Absolute Truth, or one source and foundation of everything. God is considered Sat-chit-ananda vigraha, the form of eternal knowledge and bliss. He is supreme, full of beauty, knowledge, is all-powerful and all-pervading. He is also known by His three main features: namely Brahman, the all-pervading, impersonal spiritual force or effulgence; the Paramatma, the localized expansion known as the Supersoul which accompanies every individual soul in the heart of everyone; and then Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality and form of God.
# '''The Vedas are Divine knowledge and the basis or foundation of the Vedic philosophy.''' Some of these texts have been given or spoken by God, and others were composed by sages in their deepest super conscious state in which they were able to give revelations of Universal Truths while in meditation on the Supreme. This Vedic literature, including, among other texts, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, the Upa-Vedas, Vedangas, Shadarshanas, Upanishads, the Vedanta-Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Agamas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavad-gita, and all Puranic literature and the practices congruent with them, contain the basis of the Vedic or Sanatana-dharma spiritual culture.
# '''Bhagawan has appeared throughout history in the form of personal appearances (avataras)''' within the realm of matter, and even in the sound vibration of scriptures (the Vedic literature). There are ten basic avataras of God, with numerous other expansions.
# '''Our real identity is being a spirit soul, or jiva'''.
# '''The law of cause and effect:''' The soul undergoes it’s own karma, by which each person must experience the results or consequences of his activities and creates his own destiny based on his thought, words and deeds.
# '''Rebirth or reincarnation (our next birth is directed by our karma):''' The soul incarnates through different forms until, by its own spiritual development, it reaches liberation (moksha) from the repetition of birth and death, when it attains its natural position in the spiritual domain.
# We can elevate ourselves spiritually by also engaging in worship of the Divine, such as in His forms as deities in the temple.
# We can receive proper instruction on how to follow the teachings of the Vedic philosophy from an authorized guru who is in line with a genuine parampara, or line of gurus.
# '''Principles for our spiritual development''', such as ahimsa or non-violence should be followed.
# '''The Four Ashramas:''' In our life there are four main goals, as indicated by the four ashramas of life, such as brahmacharya (the student’s life), the grihasta or the householder stage of life, the vanaprastha or retired stage of life in which we take our spiritual goals more seriously, and then the renounced or sannyasa stage of life in which our spiritual purpose is the main focus. Amongst these stages we focus first on Dharma, which is to develop ourselves morally and spiritually; then Artha, which is to develop a career or trade and prosper materially; then Kama, to enjoy and work out our basic material desires as is appropriate for our particular stage of life; and then retire from all that and focus on Moksha, or attaining Self-realization and freedom from any further rounds of birth and death in material existence.
These ten principles expand to include several other additional points:

A. The Vedic Tradition is more than a religion, but a way of life, a complete philosophy for the foundation and direction for one’s existence.

B. It is based on Universal Spiritual Truths that can be applied by anyone at anytime.

C. The Vedic tradition recognizes that the individual soul is eternal, beyond the limitations of the body, and that one soul is no different than another.

D. All living entities, both human and otherwise, are the same in their essential and divine spiritual being. All of them are parts of the eternal truth, and have appeared in this world to express their nature and also to gather experience in the realms of matter.

E. For this reason, Vedic followers accept the premise of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, that all living beings in the universe comprise one family, and that as such all beings are spiritually equal and should be respected as members within that family of the Supreme.

F. The ultimate purpose of human life is to shed all attachments to matter and attain moksha (liberation from material existence) and return to the transcendental realm which is not only our true nature but also our real home.

G. Every person’s capacity to progress spiritually depends upon their personal qualities, choices and abilities, and is not limited by the circumstances of one’s color, caste, class, or any other circumstance of birth or temporary material limitations or designations.

H. The Vedic path is based on regaining our natural spiritual identity. To pursue this goal, all human beings have the eternal right to choose their personal form of spiritual practice, as well as the right to reject any form of religious activity, and that coercion, forced conversion, or commercial inducement to adopt one religion over another should never be used or tolerated to present, propagate, or enforce one’s spiritual beliefs on others.

I. The Vedic path offers personal freedom for one to make his or her own choice of how he or she wants to pursue their spiritual approach, and what level of the Absolute Truth he or she wishes to understand. This is the height of spiritual democracy and freedom from tyranny.

J. Recognizing the value and sanctity of all forms of life, as well as the Eternal Divine Being that is their true Self, the Vedic principle is that we should therefore strive in every possible way to peacefully co-exist with all other species of living entities.

K. The Vedic path consists of ten general rules of moral conduct. There are five for inner purity, called the yamas—which include satya or truthfulness, ahimsa or non-injury to others and treating all beings with respect, asteya or no cheating or stealing, brahmacharya or celibacy, and aparighara or no unnecessarily selfish accumulation of resources for one’s own purpose. The five rules of conduct for external purification are the niyamas—such as shaucha or cleanliness and purity of mind and body, tapas or austerity and perseverance, swadhyaya or study of the Vedas and self-analysis, and santosh or contentment, as well as Ishwara-pranidhana, or acceptance of the Supreme.

L. There are also ten qualities that are the basis of dharmic (righteous) life. These are dhriti (firmness or fortitude), kshama (forgiveness), dama (self-control), asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty), shauch (purity), indriya nigraha (control over the senses), dhih (intellect), vidya (knowledge), satyam (truth) and akrodhah (absence of anger).

These principles are part of the eternal, universal truths that apply equally to all living entities who can use them for progress regardless of class, caste, nationality, gender, or any other temporary qualifications. These basic principles, as we can see, are not so difficult to understand and are the basis of the Vedic spiritual life.

There are also four basic yoga paths for the spiritual development of the individual. These include the following:

Karma yoga, which is the path of right action, detachment from the fruits of one’s labor, and dedicating our activities for a higher and spiritual purpose, especially to God. This is not merely to acquire good karma, but to become free from it altogether to attain moksha.

Jnana yoga (pronounced gyana), the path of intellectual development and understanding of what is real and what is not. On a deeper level, jnana yoga is the process of discriminating between truth and non-truth, or reality and illusion (maya), and understanding what is the Divine. This is the knowledge of the soul and God, and the relationship between them. Therefore, the acquirement of jnana or spiritual knowledge is one of the first steps in spiritual development.

Raja or dhyana yoga, known as the royal (raja) way, also called astanga yoga, is the eightfold path leading to liberation. From either hatha yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga, a person may go on to practice raja yoga. It is one of the most popular systems of yoga today. The process involves calming all mental agitation, which gradually helps the meditator to fuse with the objects of meditation by supraconscious concentration. Patanajali defined in the Yoga Sutras the eight steps of this path, consisting of the first two steps as following the yamas and niyamas, or the essential moral commandments, which was briefly explained in item K above.

The third step is asana, which means a seat or postures for meditation that are often used in hatha yoga. The fourth step is pranayama, breath control for fixing the mind in concentration. Prana means life or energy, and also can mean spirit. Ayama indicates the length and retention of breath between inhalation and exhalation, and control of the prana within the body. The fifth step is pratyahara, control of the senses and checking the mind’s attraction to external objects. The sixth step is dharana, concentrating on the object of meditation. The seventh step is dhyana, when the mind is in a state of undisturbed flowing meditation. This leads to the eighth step which is samadhi, in which, according to the eightfold path, the yogi becomes one with the Supreme, or fully engaged in thought of the Supreme. This ultimately reaches to moksha if performed diligently and steadily. However, this is an arduous path and much more explanation is required.

Bhakti yoga is the final form of spiritual realization and attainment of the spiritual world. It is the process of simply developing loving devotional service to the Lord. It is by far the easiest of all the yoga processes and has fewer requirements for the practitioners than any other process. Bhakti is the yoga that begins, continues, and ends with love and devotion to the Supreme. There is no stronger binding mechanism than love, and spiritual love is the natural sentiment that emanates from God and connects all living beings. Thus, it is said that attaining this sentiment of devotion to God holds the sum and substance of all other yoga processes and religions. It is the strength of this connection that can deliver one to the spiritual realm or God’s domain.

A formal process of conversion to Sanatana-dharma is not necessary because the principles, as outlined above, can be practiced by anyone at any time, or to any degree one wishes. Thus, anyone can be on the path of Sanatana-dharma merely by adopting this way of life. It is not an institution that you need to join that makes you a follower, but it is the acceptance of it in your heart and the practices that you adopt. However, you can approach a guru of your choice who inspires you and can guide you and then ask for diksha, or initiation, by which you may then accept a formal ritual as a qualified follower of the Vedic path in the school of thought or parampara that your guru represents. Then you may receive a spiritual name, indicating your dedication and change of spiritual orientation, or even further take an initiation as a priest or brahmana.

== References ==
# http://www.swamij.com/sanatana-dharma-what-is.htm Posted by Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati | Articles on Tradition
# http://www.pragyata.com/mag/sanatanadharmahinduism-in-a-nutshell-325 Posted by Stephen Knapp | Feb 22, 2017

Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)

2017-09-01T09:43:41Z

P16232: /* Introduction */

== What is Sanatana Dharma ==
<blockquote>'''Sanatana means eternal, never beginning nor ending.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Dharma is from dhri, meaning to hold together, to sustain.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma eternally holds All together.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma means:'''</blockquote>
* '''Eternal Path'''
* '''Never Beginning nor Ending Way'''
* '''Perennial Philosophy'''
* '''Universal Tradition'''
* '''All-Pervading Truth'''
* '''Natural Flow'''

== Introduction ==
Some people think that Hinduism or Vedic philosophy is difficult to understand, and, thus, hard to explain. But if you look at it succinctly, it is not very difficult at all. All you have to do is know what to say. So this little article presents the essential principles in a concise way that everyone can learn and repeat when necessary. Hinduism is also more correctly called by its Sanskrit name: Sanatana-Dharma.

=== Meaning of Sanatana Dharma ===
This, essentially, means to follow one’s eternal duty, which is to search for and understand our spiritual identity, and then to learn to live according to those eternal and spiritual characteristics, especially by one’s own spiritual realizations. This is also the purpose and mission of the Vedic philosophy and culture, and our ultimate duty in human life.

The Vedic philosophy, or that which is based on the ancient Vedas and its supporting literature of India, is to help humanity understand who we really are, and the purpose of life. It is like the manual you get when you buy an appliance and need to understand exactly how it works. The Vedic literature is there to help all of us.

The essence of it comes down to 10 basic principles. These are the ones most accepted by the majority of people who follow Sanatana-dharma, and are also referenced in the Vedic texts. Beyond these, there are various schools of thought, which have further developments in their own outlook and philosophy, such as the Shaivites, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, Brahmanandis, Tantrics, and so on. These we can discuss at another time or you can read more about them in my books for further information.

In any case, here are the principles:

# There is one Supreme Being, Bhagavan or God, with no beginning or end, the all in all, the unlimited Absolute Truth, who can expand into many forms. In this regard, the RigVeda (1:164:45) says: Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha Vadanti. Though sages may call Him by different names (such as Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, etc.) there is but one Absolute Truth, or one source and foundation of everything. God is considered Sat-chit-ananda vigraha, the form of eternal knowledge and bliss. He is supreme, full of beauty, knowledge, is all-powerful and all-pervading. He is also known by His three main features: namely Brahman, the all-pervading, impersonal spiritual force or effulgence; the Paramatma, the localized expansion known as the Supersoul which accompanies every individual soul in the heart of everyone; and then Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality and form of God.

# The Vedas are Divine knowledge and the basis or foundation of the Vedic philosophy. Some of these texts have been given or spoken by God, and others were composed by sages in their deepest super conscious state in which they were able to give revelations of Universal Truths while in meditation on the Supreme. This Vedic literature, including, among other texts, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, the Upa-Vedas, Vedangas, Shadarshanas, Upanishads, the Vedanta-Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Agamas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavad-gita, and all Puranic literature and the practices congruent with them, contain the basis of the Vedic or Sanatana-dharma spiritual culture.

# God can and has appeared throughout history in the form of personal appearances (avataras) within the realm of matter, and even in the sound vibration of scriptures (the Vedic literature). There are ten basic avataras of God, with numerous other expansions.

# Our real identity is being a spirit soul, or jiva.

# The soul undergoes it’s own karma, the law of cause and effect, by which each person must experience the results or consequences of his activities and creates his own destiny based on his thought, words and deeds.

# There is also rebirth or reincarnation, wherein our next birth is directed by our karma. The soul incarnates through different forms until, by its own spiritual development, it reaches liberation (moksha) from the repetition of birth and death, when it attains its natural position in the spiritual domain.

# We can elevate ourselves spiritually by also engaging in worship of the Divine, such as in His forms as deities in the temple.

# We can receive proper instruction on how to follow the teachings of the Vedic philosophy from an authorized guru who is in line with a genuine parampara, or line of gurus.

# We should also follow particular principles for our spiritual development, such as ahimsa or non-violence.

# In our life there are four main goals, as indicated by the four ashramas of life, such as brahmacharya (the student’s life), the grihasta or the householder stage of life, the vanaprastha or retired stage of life in which we take our spiritual goals more seriously, and then the renounced or sannyasa stage of life in which our spiritual purpose is the main focus. Amongst these stages we focus first on Dharma, which is to develop ourselves morally and spiritually; then Artha, which is to develop a career or trade and prosper materially; then Kama, to enjoy and work out our basic material desires as is appropriate for our particular stage of life; and then retire from all that and focus on Moksha, or attaining Self-realization and freedom from any further rounds of birth and death in material existence.

These ten principles expand to include several other additional points:

A. The Vedic Tradition is more than a religion, but a way of life, a complete philosophy for the foundation and direction for one’s existence.

B. It is based on Universal Spiritual Truths that can be applied by anyone at anytime.

C. The Vedic tradition recognizes that the individual soul is eternal, beyond the limitations of the body, and that one soul is no different than another.

D. All living entities, both human and otherwise, are the same in their essential and divine spiritual being. All of them are parts of the eternal truth, and have appeared in this world to express their nature and also to gather experience in the realms of matter.

E. For this reason, Vedic followers accept the premise of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, that all living beings in the universe comprise one family, and that as such all beings are spiritually equal and should be respected as members within that family of the Supreme.

F. The ultimate purpose of human life is to shed all attachments to matter and attain moksha (liberation from material existence) and return to the transcendental realm which is not only our true nature but also our real home.

G. Every person’s capacity to progress spiritually depends upon their personal qualities, choices and abilities, and is not limited by the circumstances of one’s color, caste, class, or any other circumstance of birth or temporary material limitations or designations.

H. The Vedic path is based on regaining our natural spiritual identity. To pursue this goal, all human beings have the eternal right to choose their personal form of spiritual practice, as well as the right to reject any form of religious activity, and that coercion, forced conversion, or commercial inducement to adopt one religion over another should never be used or tolerated to present, propagate, or enforce one’s spiritual beliefs on others.

I. The Vedic path offers personal freedom for one to make his or her own choice of how he or she wants to pursue their spiritual approach, and what level of the Absolute Truth he or she wishes to understand. This is the height of spiritual democracy and freedom from tyranny.

J. Recognizing the value and sanctity of all forms of life, as well as the Eternal Divine Being that is their true Self, the Vedic principle is that we should therefore strive in every possible way to peacefully co-exist with all other species of living entities.

K. The Vedic path consists of ten general rules of moral conduct. There are five for inner purity, called the yamas—which include satya or truthfulness, ahimsa or non-injury to others and treating all beings with respect, asteya or no cheating or stealing, brahmacharya or celibacy, and aparighara or no unnecessarily selfish accumulation of resources for one’s own purpose. The five rules of conduct for external purification are the niyamas—such as shaucha or cleanliness and purity of mind and body, tapas or austerity and perseverance, swadhyaya or study of the Vedas and self-analysis, and santosh or contentment, as well as Ishwara-pranidhana, or acceptance of the Supreme.

L. There are also ten qualities that are the basis of dharmic (righteous) life. These are dhriti (firmness or fortitude), kshama (forgiveness), dama (self-control), asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty), shauch (purity), indriya nigraha (control over the senses), dhih (intellect), vidya (knowledge), satyam (truth) and akrodhah (absence of anger).

These principles are part of the eternal, universal truths that apply equally to all living entities who can use them for progress regardless of class, caste, nationality, gender, or any other temporary qualifications. These basic principles, as we can see, are not so difficult to understand and are the basis of the Vedic spiritual life.

There are also four basic yoga paths for the spiritual development of the individual. These include the following:

Karma yoga, which is the path of right action, detachment from the fruits of one’s labor, and dedicating our activities for a higher and spiritual purpose, especially to God. This is not merely to acquire good karma, but to become free from it altogether to attain moksha.

Jnana yoga (pronounced gyana), the path of intellectual development and understanding of what is real and what is not. On a deeper level, jnana yoga is the process of discriminating between truth and non-truth, or reality and illusion (maya), and understanding what is the Divine. This is the knowledge of the soul and God, and the relationship between them. Therefore, the acquirement of jnana or spiritual knowledge is one of the first steps in spiritual development.

Raja or dhyana yoga, known as the royal (raja) way, also called astanga yoga, is the eightfold path leading to liberation. From either hatha yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga, a person may go on to practice raja yoga. It is one of the most popular systems of yoga today. The process involves calming all mental agitation, which gradually helps the meditator to fuse with the objects of meditation by supraconscious concentration. Patanajali defined in the Yoga Sutras the eight steps of this path, consisting of the first two steps as following the yamas and niyamas, or the essential moral commandments, which was briefly explained in item K above.

The third step is asana, which means a seat or postures for meditation that are often used in hatha yoga. The fourth step is pranayama, breath control for fixing the mind in concentration. Prana means life or energy, and also can mean spirit. Ayama indicates the length and retention of breath between inhalation and exhalation, and control of the prana within the body. The fifth step is pratyahara, control of the senses and checking the mind’s attraction to external objects. The sixth step is dharana, concentrating on the object of meditation. The seventh step is dhyana, when the mind is in a state of undisturbed flowing meditation. This leads to the eighth step which is samadhi, in which, according to the eightfold path, the yogi becomes one with the Supreme, or fully engaged in thought of the Supreme. This ultimately reaches to moksha if performed diligently and steadily. However, this is an arduous path and much more explanation is required.

Bhakti yoga is the final form of spiritual realization and attainment of the spiritual world. It is the process of simply developing loving devotional service to the Lord. It is by far the easiest of all the yoga processes and has fewer requirements for the practitioners than any other process. Bhakti is the yoga that begins, continues, and ends with love and devotion to the Supreme. There is no stronger binding mechanism than love, and spiritual love is the natural sentiment that emanates from God and connects all living beings. Thus, it is said that attaining this sentiment of devotion to God holds the sum and substance of all other yoga processes and religions. It is the strength of this connection that can deliver one to the spiritual realm or God’s domain.

A formal process of conversion to Sanatana-dharma is not necessary because the principles, as outlined above, can be practiced by anyone at any time, or to any degree one wishes. Thus, anyone can be on the path of Sanatana-dharma merely by adopting this way of life. It is not an institution that you need to join that makes you a follower, but it is the acceptance of it in your heart and the practices that you adopt. However, you can approach a guru of your choice who inspires you and can guide you and then ask for diksha, or initiation, by which you may then accept a formal ritual as a qualified follower of the Vedic path in the school of thought or parampara that your guru represents. Then you may receive a spiritual name, indicating your dedication and change of spiritual orientation, or even further take an initiation as a priest or brahmana.

== References ==
# http://www.swamij.com/sanatana-dharma-what-is.htm Posted by Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati | Articles on Tradition
# http://www.pragyata.com/mag/sanatanadharmahinduism-in-a-nutshell-325 Posted by Stephen Knapp | Feb 22, 2017

Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)

2017-09-01T09:34:05Z

P16232:

<blockquote>'''Sanatana means eternal, never beginning nor ending.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Dharma is from dhri, meaning to hold together, to sustain.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma eternally holds All together.'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Sanatana Dharma means:'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Eternal Path'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Never Beginning nor Ending Way'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Perennial Philosophy'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Universal Tradition'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''All-Pervading Truth'''</blockquote><blockquote>'''Natural Flow'''</blockquote><nowiki>------------------------------</nowiki>

== Introduction ==
Some people think that Hinduism or Vedic philosophy is difficult to understand, and, thus, hard to explain. But if you look at it succinctly, it is not very difficult at all. All you have to do is know what to say. So this little article presents the essential principles in a concise way that everyone can learn and repeat when necessary. Hinduism is also more correctly called by its Sanskrit name: Sanatana-Dharma. This, essentially, means to follow one’s eternal duty, which is to search for and understand our spiritual identity, and then to learn to live according to those eternal and spiritual characteristics, especially by one’s own spiritual realizations. This is also the purpose and mission of the Vedic philosophy and culture, and our ultimate duty in human life.

The Vedic philosophy, or that which is based on the ancient Vedas and its supporting literature of India, is to help humanity understand who we really are, and the purpose of life. It is like the manual you get when you buy an appliance and need to understand exactly how it works. The Vedic literature is there to help all of us.

The essence of it comes down to 10 basic principles. These are the ones most accepted by the majority of people who follow Sanatana-dharma, and are also referenced in the Vedic texts. Beyond these, there are various schools of thought, which have further developments in their own outlook and philosophy, such as the Shaivites, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, Brahmanandis, Tantrics, and so on. These we can discuss at another time or you can read more about them in my books for further information.

In any case, here are the principles:

# There is one Supreme Being, Bhagavan or God, with no beginning or end, the all in all, the unlimited Absolute Truth, who can expand into many forms. In this regard, the RigVeda (1:164:45) says: Ekam Sat Viprah Bahudha Vadanti. Though sages may call Him by different names (such as Krishna, Rama, Vishnu, etc.) there is but one Absolute Truth, or one source and foundation of everything. God is considered Sat-chit-ananda vigraha, the form of eternal knowledge and bliss. He is supreme, full of beauty, knowledge, is all-powerful and all-pervading. He is also known by His three main features: namely Brahman, the all-pervading, impersonal spiritual force or effulgence; the Paramatma, the localized expansion known as the Supersoul which accompanies every individual soul in the heart of everyone; and then Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality and form of God.

# The Vedas are Divine knowledge and the basis or foundation of the Vedic philosophy. Some of these texts have been given or spoken by God, and others were composed by sages in their deepest super conscious state in which they were able to give revelations of Universal Truths while in meditation on the Supreme. This Vedic literature, including, among other texts, the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, the Upa-Vedas, Vedangas, Shadarshanas, Upanishads, the Vedanta-Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Agamas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Bhagavad-gita, and all Puranic literature and the practices congruent with them, contain the basis of the Vedic or Sanatana-dharma spiritual culture.

# God can and has appeared throughout history in the form of personal appearances (avataras) within the realm of matter, and even in the sound vibration of scriptures (the Vedic literature). There are ten basic avataras of God, with numerous other expansions.

# Our real identity is being a spirit soul, or jiva.

# The soul undergoes it’s own karma, the law of cause and effect, by which each person must experience the results or consequences of his activities and creates his own destiny based on his thought, words and deeds.

# There is also rebirth or reincarnation, wherein our next birth is directed by our karma. The soul incarnates through different forms until, by its own spiritual development, it reaches liberation (moksha) from the repetition of birth and death, when it attains its natural position in the spiritual domain.

# We can elevate ourselves spiritually by also engaging in worship of the Divine, such as in His forms as deities in the temple.

# We can receive proper instruction on how to follow the teachings of the Vedic philosophy from an authorized guru who is in line with a genuine parampara, or line of gurus.

# We should also follow particular principles for our spiritual development, such as ahimsa or non-violence.

# In our life there are four main goals, as indicated by the four ashramas of life, such as brahmacharya (the student’s life), the grihasta or the householder stage of life, the vanaprastha or retired stage of life in which we take our spiritual goals more seriously, and then the renounced or sannyasa stage of life in which our spiritual purpose is the main focus. Amongst these stages we focus first on Dharma, which is to develop ourselves morally and spiritually; then Artha, which is to develop a career or trade and prosper materially; then Kama, to enjoy and work out our basic material desires as is appropriate for our particular stage of life; and then retire from all that and focus on Moksha, or attaining Self-realization and freedom from any further rounds of birth and death in material existence.

These ten principles expand to include several other additional points:

A. The Vedic Tradition is more than a religion, but a way of life, a complete philosophy for the foundation and direction for one’s existence.

B. It is based on Universal Spiritual Truths that can be applied by anyone at anytime.

C. The Vedic tradition recognizes that the individual soul is eternal, beyond the limitations of the body, and that one soul is no different than another.

D. All living entities, both human and otherwise, are the same in their essential and divine spiritual being. All of them are parts of the eternal truth, and have appeared in this world to express their nature and also to gather experience in the realms of matter.

E. For this reason, Vedic followers accept the premise of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, that all living beings in the universe comprise one family, and that as such all beings are spiritually equal and should be respected as members within that family of the Supreme.

F. The ultimate purpose of human life is to shed all attachments to matter and attain moksha (liberation from material existence) and return to the transcendental realm which is not only our true nature but also our real home.

G. Every person’s capacity to progress spiritually depends upon their personal qualities, choices and abilities, and is not limited by the circumstances of one’s color, caste, class, or any other circumstance of birth or temporary material limitations or designations.

H. The Vedic path is based on regaining our natural spiritual identity. To pursue this goal, all human beings have the eternal right to choose their personal form of spiritual practice, as well as the right to reject any form of religious activity, and that coercion, forced conversion, or commercial inducement to adopt one religion over another should never be used or tolerated to present, propagate, or enforce one’s spiritual beliefs on others.

I. The Vedic path offers personal freedom for one to make his or her own choice of how he or she wants to pursue their spiritual approach, and what level of the Absolute Truth he or she wishes to understand. This is the height of spiritual democracy and freedom from tyranny.

J. Recognizing the value and sanctity of all forms of life, as well as the Eternal Divine Being that is their true Self, the Vedic principle is that we should therefore strive in every possible way to peacefully co-exist with all other species of living entities.

K. The Vedic path consists of ten general rules of moral conduct. There are five for inner purity, called the yamas—which include satya or truthfulness, ahimsa or non-injury to others and treating all beings with respect, asteya or no cheating or stealing, brahmacharya or celibacy, and aparighara or no unnecessarily selfish accumulation of resources for one’s own purpose. The five rules of conduct for external purification are the niyamas—such as shaucha or cleanliness and purity of mind and body, tapas or austerity and perseverance, swadhyaya or study of the Vedas and self-analysis, and santosh or contentment, as well as Ishwara-pranidhana, or acceptance of the Supreme.

L. There are also ten qualities that are the basis of dharmic (righteous) life. These are dhriti (firmness or fortitude), kshama (forgiveness), dama (self-control), asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty), shauch (purity), indriya nigraha (control over the senses), dhih (intellect), vidya (knowledge), satyam (truth) and akrodhah (absence of anger).

These principles are part of the eternal, universal truths that apply equally to all living entities who can use them for progress regardless of class, caste, nationality, gender, or any other temporary qualifications. These basic principles, as we can see, are not so difficult to understand and are the basis of the Vedic spiritual life.

There are also four basic yoga paths for the spiritual development of the individual. These include the following:

Karma yoga, which is the path of right action, detachment from the fruits of one’s labor, and dedicating our activities for a higher and spiritual purpose, especially to God. This is not merely to acquire good karma, but to become free from it altogether to attain moksha.

Jnana yoga (pronounced gyana), the path of intellectual development and understanding of what is real and what is not. On a deeper level, jnana yoga is the process of discriminating between truth and non-truth, or reality and illusion (maya), and understanding what is the Divine. This is the knowledge of the soul and God, and the relationship between them. Therefore, the acquirement of jnana or spiritual knowledge is one of the first steps in spiritual development.

Raja or dhyana yoga, known as the royal (raja) way, also called astanga yoga, is the eightfold path leading to liberation. From either hatha yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga, a person may go on to practice raja yoga. It is one of the most popular systems of yoga today. The process involves calming all mental agitation, which gradually helps the meditator to fuse with the objects of meditation by supraconscious concentration. Patanajali defined in the Yoga Sutras the eight steps of this path, consisting of the first two steps as following the yamas and niyamas, or the essential moral commandments, which was briefly explained in item K above.

The third step is asana, which means a seat or postures for meditation that are often used in hatha yoga. The fourth step is pranayama, breath control for fixing the mind in concentration. Prana means life or energy, and also can mean spirit. Ayama indicates the length and retention of breath between inhalation and exhalation, and control of the prana within the body. The fifth step is pratyahara, control of the senses and checking the mind’s attraction to external objects. The sixth step is dharana, concentrating on the object of meditation. The seventh step is dhyana, when the mind is in a state of undisturbed flowing meditation. This leads to the eighth step which is samadhi, in which, according to the eightfold path, the yogi becomes one with the Supreme, or fully engaged in thought of the Supreme. This ultimately reaches to moksha if performed diligently and steadily. However, this is an arduous path and much more explanation is required.

Bhakti yoga is the final form of spiritual realization and attainment of the spiritual world. It is the process of simply developing loving devotional service to the Lord. It is by far the easiest of all the yoga processes and has fewer requirements for the practitioners than any other process. Bhakti is the yoga that begins, continues, and ends with love and devotion to the Supreme. There is no stronger binding mechanism than love, and spiritual love is the natural sentiment that emanates from God and connects all living beings. Thus, it is said that attaining this sentiment of devotion to God holds the sum and substance of all other yoga processes and religions. It is the strength of this connection that can deliver one to the spiritual realm or God’s domain.

A formal process of conversion to Sanatana-dharma is not necessary because the principles, as outlined above, can be practiced by anyone at any time, or to any degree one wishes. Thus, anyone can be on the path of Sanatana-dharma merely by adopting this way of life. It is not an institution that you need to join that makes you a follower, but it is the acceptance of it in your heart and the practices that you adopt. However, you can approach a guru of your choice who inspires you and can guide you and then ask for diksha, or initiation, by which you may then accept a formal ritual as a qualified follower of the Vedic path in the school of thought or parampara that your guru represents. Then you may receive a spiritual name, indicating your dedication and change of spiritual orientation, or even further take an initiation as a priest or brahmana.

== References ==
# http://www.swamij.com/sanatana-dharma-what-is.htm Posted by Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati | Articles on Tradition
# http://www.pragyata.com/mag/sanatanadharmahinduism-in-a-nutshell-325 Posted by Stephen Knapp | Feb 22, 2017

Ancient universities of Bharat

2017-09-01T05:52:59Z

P16232:

it is unfortunate that a civilisation that was the Vishwaguru of the world, a knolwedge reprostory for lnpwl;edge re[our literacy Most Indians today are well aware of the two famous ancient
universities of India which also are one of the oldest universities in
the world – Takshashila University (Taxila) and Nalanda. But are these
the only knowledge centers that existed in ancient India? Education has
always been given great prominence in Indian society since the times of
the vedic civilization, with gurukul and ashrams being the centers of
learning. And with evolving times, a large number of centers of learning
were established across ancient India of which Takshashila and Nalanda
are the most famous ones known today. Below is a list of major ancient
universities that flourished across ancient India.

== Takshashila University ==
Taxila as it is called today, Takshashila University established
around 2700 years ago was home to over 10500 students where the students
from all across the world used to come to attain specialization in over
64 different fields of study like vedas, grammar, philosophy, ayurveda,
agriculture, surgery, politics, archery, warfare, astronomy, commerce,
futurology, music, dance, etc. Famous graduates of this University
include the ones like Chanakya, Panini, Charaka, Vishnu Sharma, Jivaka
etc. This is the world’s oldest university. Read more about Takshashila University of Ancient India.

== Nalanda University ==
Nalanda University was established by Shakraditya of Gupta dynasty in
modern Bihar during early 5th century and flourished for 600 years till
12th century. Nalanda was the world’s first university to have
residential quarters for both students and teachers. It also had large
public lecture halls. Students from countries like Korea, Japan, China,
Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey came to study in this university.

The library of this university was the largest library of the ancient
world and had thousands of volumes of manuscripts on various subjects
like grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine. The
library complex was called Dharmaganja, and had three large buildings:
the Ratnasagara, the Ratnadadhi, and the Ratnaranjaka. Ratnadadhi was
nine stories tall and stored the most sacred manuscripts including the
Prajnaparamita Sutra and the Samajguhya.

In 2010, the parliament of India passed a bill approving the plans to
restore the ancient Nalanda University as a modern Nalanda
International University dedicated for post-graduate research. Many east
asian countries including China, Singapore and Japan have come forward
to fund the construction of this revived Nalanda University.

Ruins of Nalanda University

== Vikramashila University ==
Vikramashila University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century and flourished for 400 years till 12th century.
It was located in the Bhagalpur district of modern day Bihar. It gave
direct competition to Nalanda University with over 100 teachers and over
1000 students listed in this University. This university was well known
for its specialized training on the subject of Tantra (Tantrism). One
of the most popular graduates from this University was Atiśa Dipankara, a
founder of the Sharma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism who also revived
the Buddhism in Tibet.

Ruins of Vikramashila University

== Valabhi University ==
Valabhi University was established in Saurashtra of modern Gujarat at
around 6th century and it flourished for 600 years till 12th century.
Chinese traveler Itsing who visited this university during the 7th
century describes it as a great center of learning. Gunamati and
Sthiramati, the two famous Buddhist scholars are said to have graduated
from this University. This University was popular for its training in
secular subjects and students from all over the country came to study in
this University. Because of its high quality of education, graduates of
this University were given higher executive posts.

== Pushpagiri University ==
Pushpagiri University was established in ancient Kalinga kingdom
(modern day Odisha) and was spread across Cuttack and Jajpur districts.
It was established in 3rd century and flourished for the next 800 years
till 11th century. The university campus was spread across three
adjoining hills – Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri. This was one of
the most prominent centers of higher education in ancient India along
with the universities of Takshashila, Nalanda and Vikramashila. The
Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Huien Tsang) visited this university in 639
CE. Lalitgiri is said to have been commissioned by early 2nd century BCE
itself and is the oldest Buddhist establishments in the world. Recently
a few images of Emperor Ashoka have been discovered here, and it has
been suggested that the Pushpagiri University was established by Emperor
Ashoka himself.

== Odantapuri University ==
Odantapuri University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century in Magadha (which is in modern day Bihar) and
flourished for 400 years till 12th century. The famous Acharya Sri
Ganga who was a professor at the Vikramashila University was a graduate
of this Odantapuri University. According to the ancient Tibetan records
there were about 12,000 students studying at this University. Ancient
Tibetan texts mention this as one among the five great Universities of
its time, the other four being Vikramashila, Nalanda, Somapura and
Jagaddala Universities – all located in ancient India.

== Somapura University ==
Somapura Mahavihara was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century in Bengal and flourished for 400 years till 12th
century. The University spread over 27 acres of land of which the main
complex was 21 acres was one of the largest of its kind. It was a major
center of learning for Bauddha Dharma (Buddhism), Jina Dharma (Jainism)
and Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism). Even today one can find ornamental
terracotta on its outer walls depicting the influence of these three
traditions.

Ruins of Somapura University

== Other Ancient Universities ==
The above mentioned list is not a complete list of
ancient Indian universities either. Dharmapala of Pala dynasty alone is
said to have established 50 mega learning centers across his kingdom,
and they have been as huge and as popular as the ones mentioned above.
For instance, the Munshiganj Vihara discovered as recently as Marh 23,
2013 in Bengal is said to have been established in 9th century and was
home to 8000 students who came from faraway places like China, Tibet,
Nepal and Thailand.

== Destruction of Ancient Indian Universities ==
As you can see, many of the universities mentioned above came to an
end around 12th century. The universities like Nalanda, Vikramashila etc
were destroyed around this period during the Muslim invasion of India
by the fanatic Bakhtiyar Khilji from Turkey in 1193 CE. The great
library of Nalanda University was destroyed, ransacked and burnt by the
soldiers of Khilji’s army and it is said that it was so vast that the
manuscripts kept burning for three months. In-numerous number of ancient
Indian manuscripts carefully preserved for thousands of years were
destroyed in this fire. Thousands of monks in the University were burnt
alive and beheaded by Khilji’s army. According to DC Ahir, the
destruction of these centres of learning at Nalanda and other places
across northern India was responsible for the demise of ancient Indian
scientific thought in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, and anatomy.

=== References: ===
* Awakening Indians to India – Central Chinmaya Mission Trust
* D.C. Ahir (2005). Buddhism Declined in India : How and Why?
* Wikipedia
'''Image Sources (Licenses CC BY SA 2.0):'''
* Ruins of Nalanda University
* Ruins of Vikramashila University
* Ruins of Somapura University

Ancient universities of Bharat

2017-09-01T05:23:01Z

P16232:

it is unfortunate that a civilisation that was the Vishwaguru of the world our literacy Most Indians today are well aware of the two famous ancient
universities of India which also are one of the oldest universities in
the world – Takshashila University (Taxila) and Nalanda. But are these
the only knowledge centers that existed in ancient India? Education has
always been given great prominence in Indian society since the times of
the vedic civilization, with gurukul and ashrams being the centers of
learning. And with evolving times, a large number of centers of learning
were established across ancient India of which Takshashila and Nalanda
are the most famous ones known today. Below is a list of major ancient
universities that flourished across ancient India.

== Takshashila University ==
Taxila as it is called today, Takshashila University established
around 2700 years ago was home to over 10500 students where the students
from all across the world used to come to attain specialization in over
64 different fields of study like vedas, grammar, philosophy, ayurveda,
agriculture, surgery, politics, archery, warfare, astronomy, commerce,
futurology, music, dance, etc. Famous graduates of this University
include the ones like Chanakya, Panini, Charaka, Vishnu Sharma, Jivaka
etc. This is the world’s oldest university. Read more about Takshashila University of Ancient India.

== Nalanda University ==
Nalanda University was established by Shakraditya of Gupta dynasty in
modern Bihar during early 5th century and flourished for 600 years till
12th century. Nalanda was the world’s first university to have
residential quarters for both students and teachers. It also had large
public lecture halls. Students from countries like Korea, Japan, China,
Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey came to study in this university.

The library of this university was the largest library of the ancient
world and had thousands of volumes of manuscripts on various subjects
like grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine. The
library complex was called Dharmaganja, and had three large buildings:
the Ratnasagara, the Ratnadadhi, and the Ratnaranjaka. Ratnadadhi was
nine stories tall and stored the most sacred manuscripts including the
Prajnaparamita Sutra and the Samajguhya.

In 2010, the parliament of India passed a bill approving the plans to
restore the ancient Nalanda University as a modern Nalanda
International University dedicated for post-graduate research. Many east
asian countries including China, Singapore and Japan have come forward
to fund the construction of this revived Nalanda University.

Ruins of Nalanda University

== Vikramashila University ==
Vikramashila University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century and flourished for 400 years till 12th century.
It was located in the Bhagalpur district of modern day Bihar. It gave
direct competition to Nalanda University with over 100 teachers and over
1000 students listed in this University. This university was well known
for its specialized training on the subject of Tantra (Tantrism). One
of the most popular graduates from this University was Atiśa Dipankara, a
founder of the Sharma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism who also revived
the Buddhism in Tibet.

Ruins of Vikramashila University

== Valabhi University ==
Valabhi University was established in Saurashtra of modern Gujarat at
around 6th century and it flourished for 600 years till 12th century.
Chinese traveler Itsing who visited this university during the 7th
century describes it as a great center of learning. Gunamati and
Sthiramati, the two famous Buddhist scholars are said to have graduated
from this University. This University was popular for its training in
secular subjects and students from all over the country came to study in
this University. Because of its high quality of education, graduates of
this University were given higher executive posts.

== Pushpagiri University ==
Pushpagiri University was established in ancient Kalinga kingdom
(modern day Odisha) and was spread across Cuttack and Jajpur districts.
It was established in 3rd century and flourished for the next 800 years
till 11th century. The university campus was spread across three
adjoining hills – Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri. This was one of
the most prominent centers of higher education in ancient India along
with the universities of Takshashila, Nalanda and Vikramashila. The
Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Huien Tsang) visited this university in 639
CE. Lalitgiri is said to have been commissioned by early 2nd century BCE
itself and is the oldest Buddhist establishments in the world. Recently
a few images of Emperor Ashoka have been discovered here, and it has
been suggested that the Pushpagiri University was established by Emperor
Ashoka himself.

== Odantapuri University ==
Odantapuri University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century in Magadha (which is in modern day Bihar) and
flourished for 400 years till 12th century. The famous Acharya Sri
Ganga who was a professor at the Vikramashila University was a graduate
of this Odantapuri University. According to the ancient Tibetan records
there were about 12,000 students studying at this University. Ancient
Tibetan texts mention this as one among the five great Universities of
its time, the other four being Vikramashila, Nalanda, Somapura and
Jagaddala Universities – all located in ancient India.

== Somapura University ==
Somapura Mahavihara was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century in Bengal and flourished for 400 years till 12th
century. The University spread over 27 acres of land of which the main
complex was 21 acres was one of the largest of its kind. It was a major
center of learning for Bauddha Dharma (Buddhism), Jina Dharma (Jainism)
and Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism). Even today one can find ornamental
terracotta on its outer walls depicting the influence of these three
traditions.

Ruins of Somapura University

== Other Ancient Universities ==
The above mentioned list is not a complete list of
ancient Indian universities either. Dharmapala of Pala dynasty alone is
said to have established 50 mega learning centers across his kingdom,
and they have been as huge and as popular as the ones mentioned above.
For instance, the Munshiganj Vihara discovered as recently as Marh 23,
2013 in Bengal is said to have been established in 9th century and was
home to 8000 students who came from faraway places like China, Tibet,
Nepal and Thailand.

== Destruction of Ancient Indian Universities ==
As you can see, many of the universities mentioned above came to an
end around 12th century. The universities like Nalanda, Vikramashila etc
were destroyed around this period during the Muslim invasion of India
by the fanatic Bakhtiyar Khilji from Turkey in 1193 CE. The great
library of Nalanda University was destroyed, ransacked and burnt by the
soldiers of Khilji’s army and it is said that it was so vast that the
manuscripts kept burning for three months. In-numerous number of ancient
Indian manuscripts carefully preserved for thousands of years were
destroyed in this fire. Thousands of monks in the University were burnt
alive and beheaded by Khilji’s army. According to DC Ahir, the
destruction of these centres of learning at Nalanda and other places
across northern India was responsible for the demise of ancient Indian
scientific thought in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, and anatomy.

=== References: ===
* Awakening Indians to India – Central Chinmaya Mission Trust
* D.C. Ahir (2005). Buddhism Declined in India : How and Why?
* Wikipedia
'''Image Sources (Licenses CC BY SA 2.0):'''
* Ruins of Nalanda University
* Ruins of Vikramashila University
* Ruins of Somapura University

Ancient universities of Bharat

2017-09-01T05:09:01Z

P16232:

it is unfortunate that our literacy Most Indians today are well aware of the two famous ancient
universities of India which also are one of the oldest universities in
the world – Takshashila University (Taxila) and Nalanda. But are these
the only knowledge centers that existed in ancient India? Education has
always been given great prominence in Indian society since the times of
the vedic civilization, with gurukul and ashrams being the centers of
learning. And with evolving times, a large number of centers of learning
were established across ancient India of which Takshashila and Nalanda
are the most famous ones known today. Below is a list of major ancient
universities that flourished across ancient India.

== Takshashila University ==
Taxila as it is called today, Takshashila University established
around 2700 years ago was home to over 10500 students where the students
from all across the world used to come to attain specialization in over
64 different fields of study like vedas, grammar, philosophy, ayurveda,
agriculture, surgery, politics, archery, warfare, astronomy, commerce,
futurology, music, dance, etc. Famous graduates of this University
include the ones like Chanakya, Panini, Charaka, Vishnu Sharma, Jivaka
etc. This is the world’s oldest university. Read more about Takshashila University of Ancient India.

== Nalanda University ==
Nalanda University was established by Shakraditya of Gupta dynasty in
modern Bihar during early 5th century and flourished for 600 years till
12th century. Nalanda was the world’s first university to have
residential quarters for both students and teachers. It also had large
public lecture halls. Students from countries like Korea, Japan, China,
Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey came to study in this university.

The library of this university was the largest library of the ancient
world and had thousands of volumes of manuscripts on various subjects
like grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine. The
library complex was called Dharmaganja, and had three large buildings:
the Ratnasagara, the Ratnadadhi, and the Ratnaranjaka. Ratnadadhi was
nine stories tall and stored the most sacred manuscripts including the
Prajnaparamita Sutra and the Samajguhya.

In 2010, the parliament of India passed a bill approving the plans to
restore the ancient Nalanda University as a modern Nalanda
International University dedicated for post-graduate research. Many east
asian countries including China, Singapore and Japan have come forward
to fund the construction of this revived Nalanda University.

Ruins of Nalanda University

== Vikramashila University ==
Vikramashila University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century and flourished for 400 years till 12th century.
It was located in the Bhagalpur district of modern day Bihar. It gave
direct competition to Nalanda University with over 100 teachers and over
1000 students listed in this University. This university was well known
for its specialized training on the subject of Tantra (Tantrism). One
of the most popular graduates from this University was Atiśa Dipankara, a
founder of the Sharma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism who also revived
the Buddhism in Tibet.

Ruins of Vikramashila University

== Valabhi University ==
Valabhi University was established in Saurashtra of modern Gujarat at
around 6th century and it flourished for 600 years till 12th century.
Chinese traveler Itsing who visited this university during the 7th
century describes it as a great center of learning. Gunamati and
Sthiramati, the two famous Buddhist scholars are said to have graduated
from this University. This University was popular for its training in
secular subjects and students from all over the country came to study in
this University. Because of its high quality of education, graduates of
this University were given higher executive posts.

== Pushpagiri University ==
Pushpagiri University was established in ancient Kalinga kingdom
(modern day Odisha) and was spread across Cuttack and Jajpur districts.
It was established in 3rd century and flourished for the next 800 years
till 11th century. The university campus was spread across three
adjoining hills – Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri. This was one of
the most prominent centers of higher education in ancient India along
with the universities of Takshashila, Nalanda and Vikramashila. The
Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Huien Tsang) visited this university in 639
CE. Lalitgiri is said to have been commissioned by early 2nd century BCE
itself and is the oldest Buddhist establishments in the world. Recently
a few images of Emperor Ashoka have been discovered here, and it has
been suggested that the Pushpagiri University was established by Emperor
Ashoka himself.

== Odantapuri University ==
Odantapuri University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century in Magadha (which is in modern day Bihar) and
flourished for 400 years till 12th century. The famous Acharya Sri
Ganga who was a professor at the Vikramashila University was a graduate
of this Odantapuri University. According to the ancient Tibetan records
there were about 12,000 students studying at this University. Ancient
Tibetan texts mention this as one among the five great Universities of
its time, the other four being Vikramashila, Nalanda, Somapura and
Jagaddala Universities – all located in ancient India.

== Somapura University ==
Somapura Mahavihara was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
during late 8th century in Bengal and flourished for 400 years till 12th
century. The University spread over 27 acres of land of which the main
complex was 21 acres was one of the largest of its kind. It was a major
center of learning for Bauddha Dharma (Buddhism), Jina Dharma (Jainism)
and Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism). Even today one can find ornamental
terracotta on its outer walls depicting the influence of these three
traditions.

Ruins of Somapura University

== Other Ancient Universities ==
The above mentioned list is not a complete list of
ancient Indian universities either. Dharmapala of Pala dynasty alone is
said to have established 50 mega learning centers across his kingdom,
and they have been as huge and as popular as the ones mentioned above.
For instance, the Munshiganj Vihara discovered as recently as Marh 23,
2013 in Bengal is said to have been established in 9th century and was
home to 8000 students who came from faraway places like China, Tibet,
Nepal and Thailand.

== Destruction of Ancient Indian Universities ==
As you can see, many of the universities mentioned above came to an
end around 12th century. The universities like Nalanda, Vikramashila etc
were destroyed around this period during the Muslim invasion of India
by the fanatic Bakhtiyar Khilji from Turkey in 1193 CE. The great
library of Nalanda University was destroyed, ransacked and burnt by the
soldiers of Khilji’s army and it is said that it was so vast that the
manuscripts kept burning for three months. In-numerous number of ancient
Indian manuscripts carefully preserved for thousands of years were
destroyed in this fire. Thousands of monks in the University were burnt
alive and beheaded by Khilji’s army. According to DC Ahir, the
destruction of these centres of learning at Nalanda and other places
across northern India was responsible for the demise of ancient Indian
scientific thought in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, and anatomy.

=== References: ===
* Awakening Indians to India – Central Chinmaya Mission Trust
* D.C. Ahir (2005). Buddhism Declined in India : How and Why?
* Wikipedia
'''Image Sources (Licenses CC BY SA 2.0):'''
* Ruins of Nalanda University
* Ruins of Vikramashila University
* Ruins of Somapura University

Jala (जलम्)

2017-08-23T13:03:25Z

P16232: /* Soma and Jala */

== The significance of Jala ==
All annas are born of jala, water.
In Srlmadbhagavata, Sri Vyasacarya gives a detailed
description of the various annas in the context of prthvidohana, the milking
of the earth, in the story of Prthu. And, jala is the source of
all anna; in fact, ap, water stands for soma through which all anna obtains
the [http://ruralict.cse.iitb.ac.in/wiki/index.php?title=Jala&venotify=created&veaction=edit necessary] nourishment for growth. That is why the
greatness of annadana and jaladana, of the giving of food and water, is
superior to all others. The danavlras,the ones who give food and water to
others, attain to the best of lokas after their death and achieve
great glory. They also live a long life and obtain great wealth in this
world. The Mahabharata, describing the
greatness of annadana and jaladana, says: <blockquote>'''|'''|na tasmdt paramam danam
kincidsastiti memanah</blockquote><blockquote>anndt prdnabhrtastdta pravartante hi
sarvasah ||</blockquote><blockquote>Dear Yudhisthira, I believe that
there is no dana greater than the dana of food and water;
because all beings are indeed born of anna, and from anna
alone do they obtain</blockquote><blockquote>sustenance for living.</blockquote><blockquote>||tasmddannam param loke sarvalokesu
kathyate</blockquote><blockquote>anndd balam ca tejasca prdninam
vardhate sadd ||</blockquote><blockquote>That is why anna is said to be the
highest in this world. The bala, strength, and tejas, vitality,
of all living beings always depends upon anna.</blockquote><blockquote>||anne datte nareneha prdnd dattd
bhavantyuta</blockquote><blockquote>prdnaddndddhi paramam na ddnamiha
vidyate ||</blockquote><blockquote>The one who gives anna indeed gives
prana, gives life itself. And what can be a greater dana in
this world than the dana of life?</blockquote><blockquote>||annam vdpi prabhavati parity at
kurusattama .</blockquote><blockquote>nirajdtenajii vina na kincit
sampravartate</blockquote><blockquote>But, Kurusrestha Yudhisthira, anna
itself is born of water. In fact, nothing can exist without
the anna, that is born of water.</blockquote><blockquote>||nirajatasca bhagavdn somo
grahaganesvarah</blockquote><blockquote>amrtam ca sudha caiva svaha caiva
svadhd tathd</blockquote><blockquote>annausadhyo rnaharaja virudhasca
jalodbhavah</blockquote><blockquote>yatah prdnabhrtdm prdndh sambhavanti
visdmpate</blockquote><blockquote>devanamamrtam hyannarh naganam ca
sudha tathd</blockquote><blockquote>pitfndm ca svadhd prokta pasundrh
cdpi virudhah </blockquote>

== Soma and Jala ==
Soma, the god of grahas, celestial
bodies, is born of water; and so are amrta, sudha, svaha and
svadha; and, rnaharaja, so are anna, foodgrains, osadhis,
herbs, and vlrudhas, the grasses, etc. O protector of the
people, all living beings are born of and live on these various
annas that are all born of water. Of these, amrta is said to be
the anna of devas, sudha of the nagas, svadha of the pitrs,
and vlrudhas of the animals. <blockquote>annameva manusydndm
prdndndhurmanisinah</blockquote><blockquote>tacca sarvam naravydghra pdniydt
sampravartate</blockquote><blockquote>tasmdt paniyaddndd vai na varam
vidyate kvacit</blockquote>

== Jala as Prana ==
The manlsis, the thinkers of India,
have described anna as the prana, the very life, of men.
And, O lion amongst men, all kinds of anna is born of water.
Therefore, there is no dana that is greater than the dana of
water, giving of nothing else can compare with the giving of
water.<blockquote>tacca dadydnnaro nityam yadicched
bhutimdtmanah</blockquote><blockquote>dhanyam yasasyamayusyam
jaladdnamihocyate</blockquote><blockquote>satrumscdpyadhi kaunteya sadd
tisthati toyadah</blockquote>Therefore, the one who aspires to
well-being in this world and beyond should always give water
to the thirsty. Jaladana, the giving of water, is said to
endow the giver with wealth,fame and longevity in this world.
Kaunteya Yudhisthira, the giver of water always finds himself
to be superior to his enemies.

<blockquote>sarvakdmamavdpnoti Mrtirh caiva hi
</blockquote><blockquote>sdsvatim pretya cdnantyamasndti pdpebhyasca
pramucyate</blockquote>

== Jaladana: giver of water ==
He, the giver of water, attains to
the fulfilment of all his desires and everlasting fame in this
world; and after accomplishing his life here, having been washed of
all his sins, he

enjoys unending pleasures in the
worlds beyond. xliii <blockquote>toyado manujavyaghra svargam gatva
mahadyute</blockquote><blockquote>aksayan samavapnoti
lokanityabravinmanuh</blockquote>O, the shining lion amongst men, the
one who gives water to the thirsty attains to the
immortal lokas on reaching the heavens. This is what Manu has said.

Jala (जलम्)

2017-08-23T13:01:23Z

P16232:

== '''The significance of Jala''' ==
All annas are born of jala, water.
In Srlmadbhagavata, Sri Vyasacarya gives a detailed
description of the various annas in the context of prthvidohana, the milking
of the earth, in the story of Prthu. And, jala is the source of
all anna; in fact, ap, water stands for soma through which all anna obtains
the [http://ruralict.cse.iitb.ac.in/wiki/index.php?title=Jala&venotify=created&veaction=edit necessary] nourishment for growth. That is why the
greatness of annadana and jaladana, of the giving of food and water, is
superior to all others. The danavlras,the ones who give food and water to
others, attain to the best of lokas after their death and achieve
great glory. They also live a long life and obtain great wealth in this
world. The Mahabharata, describing the
greatness of annadana and jaladana, says: <blockquote>'''||na tasmdt paramam danam'''
kincidsastiti memanah</blockquote><blockquote>'''anndt prdnabhrtastdta pravartante hi'''
sarvasah ||</blockquote><blockquote>Dear Yudhisthira, I believe that
there is no dana greater than the dana of food and water;
because all beings are indeed born of anna, and from anna
alone do they obtain</blockquote><blockquote>sustenance for living.</blockquote><blockquote>'''||tasmddannam param loke sarvalokesu'''
kathyate</blockquote><blockquote>'''anndd balam ca tejasca prdninam'''
vardhate sadd ||</blockquote><blockquote>That is why anna is said to be the
highest in this world. The bala, strength, and tejas, vitality,
of all living beings always depends upon anna.</blockquote><blockquote>'''||anne datte nareneha prdnd dattd'''
bhavantyuta</blockquote><blockquote>'''prdnaddndddhi paramam na ddnamiha'''
vidyate ||</blockquote><blockquote>The one who gives anna indeed gives
prana, gives life itself. And what can be a greater dana in
this world than the dana of life?</blockquote><blockquote>'''||annam vdpi prabhavati parity at'''
kurusattama .</blockquote><blockquote>'''nirajdtenajii vina na kincit'''
sampravartate</blockquote><blockquote>But, Kurusrestha Yudhisthira, anna
itself is born of water. In fact, nothing can exist without
the anna, that is born of water.</blockquote><blockquote>'''||nirajatasca bhagavdn somo'''
grahaganesvarah</blockquote><blockquote>'''amrtam ca sudha caiva svaha caiva'''
svadhd tathd</blockquote><blockquote>'''annausadhyo rnaharaja virudhasca'''
jalodbhavah</blockquote><blockquote>'''yatah prdnabhrtdm prdndh sambhavanti'''
visdmpate</blockquote><blockquote>'''devanamamrtam hyannarh naganam ca'''
sudha tathd</blockquote><blockquote>'''pitfndm ca svadhd prokta pasundrh'''
cdpi virudhah''' '''</blockquote>

== '''Soma and Jala''' ==
Soma, the god of grahas, celestial
bodies, is born of water; and so are amrta, sudha, svaha and
svadha; and, rnaharaja, so are anna, foodgrains, osadhis,
herbs, and vlrudhas, the grasses, etc. O protector of the
people, all living beings are born of and live on these various
annas that are all born of water. Of these, amrta is said to be
the anna of devas, sudha of the nagas, svadha of the pitrs,
and vlrudhas of the animals. <blockquote>annameva manusydndm
prdndndhurmanisinah</blockquote><blockquote>tacca sarvam naravydghra pdniydt
sampravartate</blockquote><blockquote>tasmdt paniyaddndd vai na varam
vidyate kvacit</blockquote>

== Jala as Prana ==
The manlsis, the thinkers of India,
have described anna as the prana, the very life, of men.
And, O lion amongst men, all kinds of anna is born of water.
Therefore, there is no dana that is greater than the dana of
water, giving of nothing else can compare with the giving of
water.<blockquote>tacca dadydnnaro nityam yadicched
bhutimdtmanah</blockquote><blockquote>dhanyam yasasyamayusyam
jaladdnamihocyate</blockquote><blockquote>satrumscdpyadhi kaunteya sadd
tisthati toyadah</blockquote>Therefore, the one who aspires to
well-being in this world and beyond should always give water
to the thirsty. Jaladana, the giving of water, is said to
endow the giver with wealth,fame and longevity in this world.
Kaunteya Yudhisthira, the giver of water always finds himself
to be superior to his enemies.

<blockquote>sarvakdmamavdpnoti Mrtirh caiva hi
</blockquote><blockquote>sdsvatim pretya cdnantyamasndti pdpebhyasca
pramucyate</blockquote>

== Jaladana: giver of water ==
He, the giver of water, attains to
the fulfilment of all his desires and everlasting fame in this
world; and after accomplishing his life here, having been washed of
all his sins, he

enjoys unending pleasures in the
worlds beyond. xliii <blockquote>toyado manujavyaghra svargam gatva
mahadyute</blockquote><blockquote>aksayan samavapnoti
lokanityabravinmanuh</blockquote>O, the shining lion amongst men, the
one who gives water to the thirsty attains to the
immortal lokas on reaching the heavens. This is what Manu has said.

Cow in Vedas (वेदेषु गौः)

2017-08-21T08:21:38Z

P16232:

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Cow (Sanskrit : धेनु , गौः , सुरभि , पयस्विनी) is a divine being revered and worshiped as the earthy embodiment of devatas by Hindus. Since times immemorial in Bharatavarsha, the cow has well been recognized for Her selflessness and service to humankind and thus has been worshiped with utmost reverence. Importance of cow in the Dharmic way of life can be summarized in the following words of Vasishta || वसिष्ठमुनिः with Rishi Viswamitra || विश्वामित्रमुनिः regarding शबला, the holy cow in '''as given by Valmiki maharshi in श्रीरामायण'''<blockquote>'''''शाश्वती शबला मह्यं कीर्तिरात्मगतो यथा'''''</blockquote><blockquote>'''''अस्यां हव्यं च कव्यं च प्राणयात्रा तथैव च''' (Val. Ram Bal 53.13)''</blockquote> '''Meaning:''' Just as a person with self-respect and his fame are inseparable, so also I (Vasishta) am inseparable from Shabala. With her milk my daily activities for the gods and ancestors are conducted, so as my प्राणयात्रा (life’s journey).

Since time immemorial, in Bharatvarsha the cow is worshiped as it seen to represent selflessness and service to humankind. the sacredness of the cow is described extensively in the Vedas. Kamadhenu or the bovine-goddess, who resides in IndraLoka is described in the Shastras as the Mother of all cows. She is a miraculous provider who fulfills the desires of her owner. Kamadhenu's lineage including he daughter Nandini also feature prominently in the Nirukthas. Yaska Mahrashi explains the name ‘go’ as a part of the 21 names of ||prithvi (earth) given below

1) Om gauhu

2) Gma

3) Jnya

4) kshma

5) Ksha

6) Kshama

7) kshoni

8) kshiti
9) Avanihi
10) Urvi
11) Prithvi
12) Mahi
13) Ripah
14) Aditihi

15) Ila
16) Niryathi
17) Bhu
18) Bhumihi
19) Pushaha

20) Gathuhu

21) Gothraha

||Gothra ith yeka vimshati prthivi namadhiyani||

'''meaning:?'''

Several explanations are given by Yaska maharishi regarding the origin of the word cow/gau:

yaddurangatha bhavathi yachasyam bhutani gachati||

that which is extensively pervasive and whence all the living entities are traveling on

||pasunamehabhavati yathasma deva||

the same thing is applicable to the specialty : the cow or the word go.

||adityopi gauruchyate sarvepi rashmayo gavauchanthi||

||अदित्योपि गौरुच्यते सर्वेऽपि रश्मयो गवौचन्थि ||

आदित्य ||Aditya () is also called gahu. Surya rash mi (the sun rays) are also called as gau or cow.

The Vishnu Purana says

|| gavamsuryaha paro guruhu||

when Lord Krishna appears, Bhudevi speaks to the devatas.

This is a significant part in the commentary. Vishnu chitta, an ancient acharya explains,

||अत्रा गुरु शब्ध करनमचि||

||athra guru shabda karanamachi||

here the word guru also has the causative meaning.

|surya suthashcha gaamaha||

So he quotes samvartha shruthi vakya|| as evidence.

The sun rays are the ||surya sutaschya gavah|| because surya is the cause of their rays (whose rays).

Therefore, this Sun is accepted as the ||guru and the evidence is the old nirukti, the legacy of that Nirukti is the evidence. Now who is the Sun? and who is the cow?
== Sankoshan ?? ==
The cow is called ||devaanaam mata (mother of devathas).

Why is Indra called Gospathi and why do all great maharshis like Gautama, Gavisthara have the name they have?

'''Also there are gavamayana such significant and symbolic yajna is there(???). This is done with cows only. This is explained in Taitreya Samhita.
There is a famous sukta in Rg Veda 10.169 called Go sukta which says that those who are hardworking and perform ||tapasya (), they would understand that these mantras are not addressing just the ordinary cows. It is not possible. Superficial also we can understand this. There is also the “kamadhenu” cow who is referred to in the Vedas in the clash between Vasishtha and Vishwamitra Muni'''. Is Kamadhenu an ordinary cow? Kaushika or Vishwamitra '''was a rich sensuality''', and powerful king who had the power of Kshatra dharma (). He desired to own kamadhenu. It is

to understand why he desired Kamadhenu.

== The Go suktas ==
Let’s analyze the go sukta from the Rg veda (10.169). There are only 4 mantras in this sukta, which addresses the cows as devatas. The mood of these verses are as follows. This sukta is addressed to Rudra deva says,<blockquote>“Let the wind blow pleasingly towards the cows and let the cows enjoy the nourishing milk and the nice grass. Let them drink water which is pleasing and makes life satisfying. This cow which is providing “Jiva dhanya” (life-sustaining grains) to us, let such cows be satisfied as they stand on their own feet.”</blockquote>Agnidev understands those cows who have got similar forms or different kinds of form or same size through yoga. The rishis of Angirasa kula, the great ||tapasvis () created the cows. These cows are beneficial to the cause of yajna. Let such cows be given unlimited satisfaction by the ||Parjanya (God of rain). The cows offer themselves to those devatas who are qualified to perform the yajna. Only Soma deva understands their entire form,<blockquote>“Hey Indradeva, please bring them to our cow shed, the cows which are full of milk and one who are always giving children. The paramatama who is the creator has given this cow to me to whom all the glorification is made by me. After the ||pitris () and ||pitridevas () being permitted, let these auspicious cows on their own, let them be tied in cow shed, only because of (go-santan) the family of cows, lets become happy and prosperous.</blockquote>

== Explanation of the Sukta ==
If one see the above suktas only from the '''historic perspective''', what would one see? It would be only the fake concept of the self-styled historians who claimed that the Aryas who came from some foreign land looking for food and water for their people and cows. The superficial explanation form this perspective seems only a prayer made for cows. It seems incoherent, for eg: if the prayers are only for saying that let the cows eat grass, let them drink water, why would Vedas need such a sukta for it?

Why would somebody need the blessings of rudra?

What does it mean that Angiras is responsible for creating cows?

What is the history behind this?

Cows having many forms or similar shape can be accepted externally and at the same time Agni alone knows all their names. What is the underlying meaning of this sukta? Also what is the meaning of ‘cows alone offer their life to the devatas?’ Why only some are able to understand this secret?
“Indra should bring those cows to cow shed”

What is the historical significance of this statement? ... “The cows are given by the lord to those rishis who glorify them.” What does it mean?

Why are the vishwa devathas () the protector of cows?

One has to get the proper explanation or else the suktas will be wrongly understood. Just because, one doesn’t understand these esoteric verse, to call it meaningless is foolish. To say that the foolish Rishis and munis wrote these verses out of exaggeration somehow or other they wanted to protect cows, that is what is indicated here?
as there were milli'''ons of our a and i'''t is important to understand the suktas.

== Conclusions ==
As we have explained earlier: “go” means light, not external light. For rishis to light up their internal light (should it be effulgence) and for the nourishment of such light, these prayers have appeared. The light Agni, Soma, Prajapatim Vishwadevatha they have a relationship.
If someone is sitting in dark and if there is light it is very pleasing. Similarly when there is inner darkness (deergha tamasu), rishis who are aspiring for knowledge receive the transcendental light of knowledge, it is very pleasing.

Just as the cow needs grass, so also the light of transcendental knowledge also needs grass and water. Without nourishment jnana will be dead. Rishis have called even water as “jeeva dhanya” (that which nourishes life). Also it is explained that cows are standing on their own feet (padadhvi).

Why is it that this is talked about, do only cows have legs?

One has to study this veda sutra to understand it. Rudra represents death (mrityu). So the prayer: “Let the light not see its end”, offered to him indicates knowledge is limitless and the desire to have that is an eternal desire. Similarly when we see external cows, they have the same colour, different or same shape or light rays that take shelter of the power of Sun god could also have different colors'''. The janan surya is they have taken shelter of jnana bala and have different colors, the nature of jnana is necessarily not only one''', it is varieties, therefore satya or truth has diverse facets and appears in different sizes and colours. As the Bhagavd Gita explains in 11th chapter “

nana-varnakrtini ca” this is all explained by Agni, that is the meaning.

Cow in Vedas (वेदेषु गौः)

2017-08-21T08:09:58Z

P16232:

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Cow (Sanskrit : धेनु , गौः , सुरभि , पयस्विनी) is a divine being revered and worshiped as the earthy embodiment of devatas by Hindus. Since times immemorial in Bharatavarsha, the cow has well been recognized for Her selflessness and service to humankind and thus has been worshiped with utmost reverence. Importance of cow in the Dharmic way of life can be summarized in the following words of Vasishta || वसिष्ठमुनिः with Rishi Viswamitra || विश्वामित्रमुनिः regarding शबला, the holy cow in '''as given by Valmiki maharshi in श्रीरामायण'''<blockquote>'''''शाश्वती शबला मह्यं कीर्तिरात्मगतो यथा'''''</blockquote><blockquote>'''''अस्यां हव्यं च कव्यं च प्राणयात्रा तथैव च''' (Val. Ram Bal 53.13)''</blockquote> '''Meaning:''' Just as a person with self-respect and his fame are inseparable, so also I (Vasishta) am inseparable from Shabala. With her milk my daily activities for the gods and ancestors are conducted, so as my प्राणयात्रा (life’s journey).

Since time immemorial, in Bharatvarsha the cow is worshiped as it seen to represent selflessness and service to humankind. the sacredness of the cow is described extensively in the Vedas. Kamadhenu or the bovine-goddess, who resides in IndraLoka is described in the Shastras as the Mother of all cows. She is a miraculous provider who fulfills the desires of her owner. Kamadhenu's lineage including he daughter Nandini also feature prominently in the Nirukthas. Yaska Mahrashi explains the name ‘go’ as a part of the 21 names of ||prithvi (earth) given below

1) Om gauhu

2) Gma

3) Jnya

4) kshma

5) Ksha

6) Kshama

7) kshoni

8) kshiti
9) Avanihi
10) Urvi
11) Prithvi
12) Mahi
13) Ripah
14) Aditihi

15) Ila
16) Niryathi
17) Bhu
18) Bhumihi
19) Pushaha

20) Gathuhu

21) Gothraha

||Gothra ith yeka vimshati prthivi namadhiyani||

'''meaning:?'''

Several explanations are given by Yaska maharishi regarding the origin of the word cow/gau:

yaddurangatha bhavathi yachasyam bhutani gachati||

that which is extensively pervasive and whence all the living entities are traveling on

||pasunamehabhavati yathasma deva||

the same thing is applicable to the specialty : the cow or the word go.

||adityopi gauruchyate sarvepi rashmayo gavauchanthi||

||अदित्योपि गौरुच्यते सर्वेऽपि रश्मयो गवौचन्थि ||

आदित्य ||Aditya () is also called gahu. Surya rash mi (the sun rays) are also called as gau or cow.

The Vishnu Purana says

|| gavamsuryaha paro guruhu||

when Lord Krishna appears, Bhudevi speaks to the devatas.

This is a significant part in the commentary. Vishnu chitta, an ancient acharya explains,

||अत्रा गुरु शब्ध करनमचि||

||athra guru shabda karanamachi||

here the word guru also has the causative meaning.

|surya suthashcha gaamaha||

So he quotes samvartha shruthi vakya|| as evidence.

The sun rays are the ||surya sutaschya gavah|| because surya is the cause of their rays (whose rays).

Therefore, this Sun is accepted as the ||guru and the evidence is the old nirukti, the legacy of that Nirukti is the evidence. Now who is the Sun? and who is the cow?
== Sankoshan ?? ==
The cow is called ||devaanaam mata (mother of devathas).

Why is Indra called Gospathi and why do all great maharshis like Gautama, Gavisthara have the name they have?

'''Also there are gavamayana such significant and symbolic yajna is there(???). This is done with cows only. This is explained in Taitreya Samhita.
There is a famous sukta in Rg Veda 10.169 called Go sukta which says that those who are hardworking and perform ||tapasya (), they would understand that these mantras are not addressing just the ordinary cows. It is not possible. Superficial also we can understand this. There is also the “kamadhenu” cow who is referred to in the Vedas in the clash between Vasishtha and Vishwamitra Muni'''. Is Kamadhenu an ordinary cow? Kaushika or Vishwamitra '''was a rich sensuality''', and powerful king who had the power of Kshatra dharma (). He desired to own kamadhenu. It is

to understand why he desired Kamadhenu.

== The Go suktas ==
Let’s analyze the go sukta from the Rg veda (10.169). There are only 4 mantras in this sukta, which addresses the cows as devatas. The mood of these verses are as follows. This sukta is addressed to Rudra deva says,<blockquote>“Let the wind blow pleasingly towards the cows and let the cows enjoy the nourishing milk and the nice grass. Let them drink water which is pleasing and makes life satisfying. This cow which is providing “Jiva dhanya” (life-sustaining grains) to us, let such cows be satisfied as they stand on their own feet.”</blockquote>Agnidev understands those cows who have got similar forms or different kinds of form or same size through yoga. The rishis of Angirasa kula, the great ||tapasvis () created the cows. These cows are beneficial to the cause of yajna. Let such cows be given unlimited satisfaction by the ||Parjanya (God of rain). The cows offer themselves to those devatas who are qualified to perform the yajna. Only Soma deva understands their entire form,<blockquote>“Hey Indradeva, please bring them to our cow shed, the cows which are full of milk and one who are always giving children. The paramatama who is the creator has given this cow to me to whom all the glorification is made by me. After the ||pitris () and ||pitridevas () being permitted, let these auspicious cows on their own, let them be tied in cow shed, only because of (go-santan) the family of cows, lets become happy and prosperous.</blockquote>

== Itihasic explanation of the Sukta ==

=== If one see the above suktas only from the historic perspective, what would one see? It would be only the fake concept of the self-styled historians who claimed that the Aryas who came from some foreign land looking for food and water for their people and their cows sake. The superficial explanation form this perspective seems only a prayer made for cows. It seems incoherent, for eg: if the prayers are only for saying that let the cows eat grass, let them drink water, ===

=== why w'''ould Vedas need such a sukta for it?''' ===
Why would somebody need the blessings of rudra?

What does it mean that Angiras is responsible for creating cows?

What is the history behind this?

Cows having many forms or similar shape can be accepted externally and at the same time Agni alone knows all their names. What is the underlying meaning of this sukta? Also what is the meaning of ‘cows alone offer their life to the devatas?’ Why only some are able to understand this secret?
“Indra should bring those cows to cow shed”

What is the historical significance of this statement? ... “The cows are given by the lord to those rishis who glorify them.” What does it mean?

Why are the vishwa devathas () the protector of cows?

One has to get the proper explanation or else the suktas will be wrongly understood. Just because, one doesn’t understand these esoteric verse, to call it meaningless is foolish. To say that the foolish Rishis and munis wrote these verses out of exaggeration somehow or other they wanted to protect cows, that is what is indicated here?
as there were milli'''ons of our a and i'''t is important to understand the suktas.

== Conclusions ==
As we have explained earlier: “go” means light, not external light. For rishis to light up their internal light (should it be effulgence) and for the nourishment of such light, these prayers have appeared. The light Agni, Soma, Prajapatim Vishwadevatha they have a relationship.
If someone is sitting in dark and if there is light it is very pleasing. Similarly when there is inner darkness (deergha tamasu), rishis who are aspiring for knowledge receive the transcendental light of knowledge, it is very pleasing.

Just as the cow needs grass, so also the light of transcendental knowledge also needs grass and water. Without nourishment jnana will be dead. Rishis have called even water as “jeeva dhanya” (that which nourishes life). Also it is explained that cows are standing on their own feet (padadhvi).

Why is it that this is talked about, do only cows have legs?

One has to study this veda sutra to understand it. Rudra represents death (mrityu). So the prayer: “Let the light not see its end”, offered to him indicates knowledge is limitless and the desire to have that is an eternal desire. Similarly when we see external cows, they have the same colour, different or same shape or light rays that take shelter of the power of Sun god could also have different colors'''. The janan surya is they have taken shelter of jnana bala and have different colors, the nature of jnana is necessarily not only one''', it is varieties, therefore satya or truth has diverse facets and appears in different sizes and colours. As the Bhagavd Gita explains in 11th chapter “

nana-varnakrtini ca” this is all explained by Agni, that is the meaning.

Cow in Vedas (वेदेषु गौः)

2017-08-21T08:06:57Z

P16232: /* Explanation of Go suktas */

Cow (Sanskrit : धेनु , गौः , सुरभि , पयस्विनी) is a divine being revered and worshiped as the earthy embodiment of devatas by Hindus. Since times immemorial in Bharatavarsha, the cow has well been recognized for Her selflessness and service to humankind and thus has been worshiped with utmost reverence.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Importance of cow in the Dharmic way of life can be summarized in the following words of Vasishta || वसिष्ठमुनिः with Rishi Viswamitra || विश्वामित्रमुनिः regarding शबला, the holy cow in '''as given by Valmiki maharshi in श्रीरामायण'''<blockquote>'''''शाश्वती शबला मह्यं कीर्तिरात्मगतो यथा'''''</blockquote><blockquote>'''''अस्यां हव्यं च कव्यं च प्राणयात्रा तथैव च''' (Val. Ram Bal 53.13)''</blockquote> '''Meaning:''' Just as a person with self-respect and his fame are inseparable, so also I (Vasishta) am inseparable from Shabala. With her milk my daily activities for the gods and ancestors are conducted, so as my प्राणयात्रा (life’s journey).

Since time immemorial, in Bharatvarsha the cow is worshiped as it seen to represent selflessness and service to humankind. the sacredness of the cow is described extensively in the Vedas. Kamadhenu or the bovine-goddess, who resides in IndraLoka is described in the Shastras as the Mother of all cows. She is a miraculous provider who fulfills the desires of her owner. Kamadhenu's lineage including he daughter Nandini also feature prominently in the Nirukthas. Yaska Mahrashi explains the name ‘go’ as a part of the 21 names of ||prithvi (earth) given below

1) Om gauhu

2) Gma

3) Jnya

4) kshma

5) Ksha

6) Kshama

7) kshoni

8) kshiti
9) Avanihi
10) Urvi
11) Prithvi
12) Mahi
13) Ripah
14) Aditihi

15) Ila
16) Niryathi
17) Bhu
18) Bhumihi
19) Pushaha

20) Gathuhu

21) Gothraha

||Gothra ith yeka vimshati prthivi namadhiyani||

'''meaning:?'''

Several explanations are given by Yaska maharishi regarding the origin of the word cow/gau:

yaddurangatha bhavathi yachasyam bhutani gachati||

that which is extensively pervasive and whence all the living entities are traveling on

||pasunamehabhavati yathasma deva||

the same thing is applicable to the specialty : the cow or the word go.

||adityopi gauruchyate sarvepi rashmayo gavauchanthi||

||अदित्योपि गौरुच्यते सर्वेऽपि रश्मयो गवौचन्थि ||

आदित्य ||Aditya () is also called gahu. Surya rash mi (the sun rays) are also called as gau or cow.

The Vishnu Purana says

|| gavamsuryaha paro guruhu||

when Lord Krishna appears, Bhudevi speaks to the devatas.

This is a significant part in the commentary. Vishnu chitta, an ancient acharya explains,

||अत्रा गुरु शब्ध करनमचि||

||athra guru shabda karanamachi||

here the word guru also has the causative meaning.

|surya suthashcha gaamaha||

So he quotes samvartha shruthi vakya|| as evidence.

The sun rays are the ||surya sutaschya gavah|| because surya is the cause of their rays (whose rays).

Therefore, this Sun is accepted as the ||guru and the evidence is the old nirukti, the legacy of that Nirukti is the evidence. Now who is the Sun? and who is the cow?
== Sankoshan ?? ==
The cow is called ||devaanaam mata (mother of devathas).

Why is Indra called Gospathi and why do all great maharshis like Gautama, Gavisthara have the name they have?

'''Also there are gavamayana such significant and symbolic yajna is there(???). This is done with cows only. This is explained in Taitreya Samhita.
There is a famous sukta in Rg Veda 10.169 called Go sukta which says that those who are hardworking and perform ||tapasya (), they would understand that these mantras are not addressing just the ordinary cows. It is not possible. Superficial also we can understand this. There is also the “kamadhenu” cow who is referred to in the Vedas in the clash between Vasishtha and Vishwamitra Muni'''. Is Kamadhenu an ordinary cow? Kaushika or Vishwamitra '''was a rich sensuality''', and powerful king who had the power of Kshatra dharma (). He desired to own kamadhenu. It is

to understand why he desired Kamadhenu.

== The Go suktas ==
Let’s analyze the go sukta from the Rg veda (10.169). There are only 4 mantras in this sukta, which addresses the cows as devatas. The mood of these verses are as follows. This sukta is addressed to Rudra deva says,<blockquote>“Let the wind blow pleasingly towards the cows and let the cows enjoy the nourishing milk and the nice grass. Let them drink water which is pleasing and makes life satisfying. This cow which is providing “Jiva dhanya” (life-sustaining grains) to us, let such cows be satisfied as they stand on their own feet.”</blockquote>Agnidev understands those cows who have got similar forms or different kinds of form or same size through yoga. The rishis of Angirasa kula, the great ||tapasvis () created the cows. These cows are beneficial to the cause of yajna. Let such cows be given unlimited satisfaction by the ||Parjanya (God of rain). The cows offer themselves to those devatas who are qualified to perform the yajna. Only Soma deva understands their entire form,<blockquote>“Hey Indradeva, please bring them to our cow shed, the cows which are full of milk and one who are always giving children. The paramatama who is the creator has given this cow to me to whom all the glorification is made by me. After the ||pitris () and ||pitridevas () being permitted, let these auspicious cows on their own, let them be tied in cow shed, only because of (go-santan) the family of cows, lets become happy and prosperous.</blockquote>

== Itihasic explanation of the Sukta ==
If one see the above suktas only from the historic perspective, what would one see? It would be only the fake concept of the self-styled historians who claimed that the Aryas who came from some foreign land looking for food and water for their people and their cows sake. The superficial explanation form this perspective seems only a prayer made for cows. It seems incoherent, for eg: if the prayers are only for saying that let the cows eat grass, let them drink water,

why would Vedas need such a sukta for it?

Why would somebody need the blessings of rudra?

What does it mean that Angiras is responsible for creating cows?

What is the history behind this?

Cows having many forms or similar shape can be accepted externally and at the same time Agni alone knows all their names. What is the underlying meaning of this sukta? Also what is the meaning of ‘cows alone offer their life to the devatas?’ Why only some are able to understand this secret?
“Indra should bring those cows to cow shed”

What is the historical significance of this statement? ... “The cows are given by the lord to those rishis who glorify them.” What does it mean?

Why are the vishwa devathas () the protector of cows?

One has to get the proper explanation or else the suktas will be wrongly understood. Just because, one doesn’t understand these esoteric verse, to call it meaningless is foolish. To say that the foolish Rishis and munis wrote these verses out of exaggeration somehow or other they wanted to protect cows, that is what is indicated here?
as there were milli'''ons of our a and i'''t is important to understand the suktas.

Conclusions

As we have explained earlier: “go” means light, not external light. For rishis to light up their internal light (should it be effulgence) and for the nourishment of such light, these prayers have appeared. The light Agni, Soma, Prajapatim Vishwadevatha they have a relationship.
If someone is sitting in dark and if there is light it is very pleasing. Similarly when there is inner darkness (deergha tamasu), rishis who are aspiring for knowledge receive the transcendental light of knowledge, it is very pleasing.

Just as the cow needs grass, so also the light of transcendental knowledge also needs grass and water. Without nourishment jnana will be dead. Rishis have called even water as “jeeva dhanya” (that which nourishes life). Also it is explained that cows are standing on their own feet (padadhvi).

Why is it that this is talked about, do only cows have legs?

One has to study this veda sutra to understand it. Rudra represents death (mrityu). So the prayer: “Let the light not see its end”, offered to him indicates knowledge is limitless and the desire to have that is an eternal desire. Similarly when we see external cows, they have the same colour, different or same shape or light rays that take shelter of the power of Sun god could also have different colors'''. The janan surya is they have taken shelter of jnana bala and have different colors, the nature of jnana is necessarily not only one''', it is varieties, therefore satya or truth has diverse facets and appears in different sizes and colours. As the Bhagavd Gita explains in 11th chapter “

nana-varnakrtini ca” this is all explained by Agni, that is the meaning.

Cow in Vedas (वेदेषु गौः)

2017-08-21T07:40:51Z

P16232: /* Sankoshan ?? */

Cow (Sanskrit : धेनु , गौः , सुरभि , पयस्विनी) is a divine being revered and worshiped as the earthy embodiment of devatas by Hindus. Since times immemorial in Bharatavarsha, the cow has well been recognized for Her selflessness and service to humankind and thus has been worshiped with utmost reverence.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Importance of cow in the Dharmic way of life can be summarized in the following words of Vasishta || वसिष्ठमुनिः with Rishi Viswamitra || विश्वामित्रमुनिः regarding शबला, the holy cow in '''as given by Valmiki maharshi in श्रीरामायण'''<blockquote>'''''शाश्वती शबला मह्यं कीर्तिरात्मगतो यथा'''''</blockquote><blockquote>'''''अस्यां हव्यं च कव्यं च प्राणयात्रा तथैव च''' (Val. Ram Bal 53.13)''</blockquote> '''Meaning:''' Just as a person with self-respect and his fame are inseparable, so also I (Vasishta) am inseparable from Shabala. With her milk my daily activities for the gods and ancestors are conducted, so as my प्राणयात्रा (life’s journey).

Since time immemorial, in Bharatvarsha the cow is worshiped as it seen to represent selflessness and service to humankind. the sacredness of the cow is described extensively in the Vedas. Kamadhenu or the bovine-goddess, who resides in IndraLoka is described in the Shastras as the Mother of all cows. She is a miraculous provider who fulfills the desires of her owner. Kamadhenu's lineage including he daughter Nandini also feature prominently in the Nirukthas. Yaska Mahrashi explains the name ‘go’ as a part of the 21 names of ||prithvi (earth) given below

1) Om gauhu

2) Gma

3) Jnya

4) kshma

5) Ksha

6) Kshama

7) kshoni

8) kshiti
9) Avanihi
10) Urvi
11) Prithvi
12) Mahi
13) Ripah
14) Aditihi

15) Ila
16) Niryathi
17) Bhu
18) Bhumihi
19) Pushaha

20) Gathuhu

21) Gothraha

||Gothra ith yeka vimshati prthivi namadhiyani||

'''meaning:?'''

Several explanations are given by Yaska maharishi regarding the origin of the word cow/gau:

yaddurangatha bhavathi yachasyam bhutani gachati||

that which is extensively pervasive and whence all the living entities are traveling on

||pasunamehabhavati yathasma deva||

the same thing is applicable to the specialty : the cow or the word go.

||adityopi gauruchyate sarvepi rashmayo gavauchanthi||

||अदित्योपि गौरुच्यते सर्वेऽपि रश्मयो गवौचन्थि ||

आदित्य ||Aditya () is also called gahu. Surya rash mi (the sun rays) are also called as gau or cow.

The Vishnu Purana says

|| gavamsuryaha paro guruhu||

when Lord Krishna appears, Bhudevi speaks to the devatas.

This is a significant part in the commentary. Vishnu chitta, an ancient acharya explains,

||अत्रा गुरु शब्ध करनमचि||

||athra guru shabda karanamachi||

here the word guru also has the causative meaning.

|surya suthashcha gaamaha||

So he quotes samvartha shruthi vakya|| as evidence.

The sun rays are the ||surya sutaschya gavah|| because surya is the cause of their rays (whose rays).

Therefore, this Sun is accepted as the ||guru and the evidence is the old nirukti, the legacy of that Nirukti is the evidence. Now who is the Sun? and who is the cow?
== Sankoshan ?? ==
The cow is called ||devaanaam mata (mother of devathas).

Why is Indra called Gospathi and why do all great maharshis like Gautama, Gavisthara have the name they have?

'''Also there are gavamayana such significant and symbolic yajna is there(???). This is done with cows only. This is explained in Taitreya Samhita.
There is a famous sukta in Rg Veda 10.169 called Go sukta which says that those who are hardworking and perform ||tapasya (), they would understand that these mantras are not addressing just the ordinary cows. It is not possible. Superficial also we can understand this. There is also the “kamadhenu” cow who is referred to in the Vedas in the clash between Vasishtha and Vishwamitra Muni'''. Is Kamadhenu an ordinary cow? Kaushika or Vishwamitra '''was a rich sensuality''', and powerful king who had the power of Kshatra dharma (). He desired to own kamadhenu. It is

to understand why he desired Kamadhenu.

== Explanation of Go suktas ==
Let’s analyze the go sukta from the Rg veda (10.169). There are only 4 mantras in this sukta, which addresses the cows as devatas. The mood of these verses are as follows. This sukta is addressed to Rudra deva says,<blockquote>“Let the wind blow pleasingly towards the cows and let the cows enjoy the nourishing milk and the nice grass. Let them drink water which is pleasing and makes life satisfying. This cow which is providing “Jiva dhanya” (life-sustaining grains) to us, let such cows be satisfied as they stand on their own feet.”</blockquote>Agnidev understands those cows who have got similar forms or different kinds of form or same size through yoga. The rishis of Angirasa kula, the great ||tapasvis () created the cows. These cows are beneficial to the cause of yajna. Let such cows be given unlimited satisfaction by the ||Parjanya (God of rain). The cows offer themselves to those devatas who are qualified to perform the yajna. Only Soma deva understands their entire form,

“Hey Indradeva, please bring them to our cow shed, the cows which are full of milk and one who are always giving children. The paramatama who is the creator has given this cow to me to whom all the glorification is made by me. After the ||pitris () and ||pitridevas () being permitted, let these auspicious cows on their own, let them be tied in cow shed, only because of (go-santan) the family of cows, lets become happy and prosperous”
If one see the above suktas only from the historic perspective, what would one see? It would be only the fake concept of the aryas who came from some foreign land looking for food and waer for their people and their cows sake. Apasrt from being shallow story this is a concocted story of the Western self-styled historians. The superficial explanation form this perspective seems only a prayer made for cows. It seems incoherent, for eg: if the prayers are only for saying that let the cows eat grass, let them drink water, why would Vedas need such a sukta for it? Why would somebody need the blessings of rudra? What does it mean that Angiras is responsible for creating cows? What is the history behind this? Cows having many forms or similar shape can be accepted externally and at the same time Agni alone knows all their names. What is the underlying meaning of this sukta? Also what is the meaning of ‘cows alone offer their life to the devatas?’ Why only some are able to understand this secret?
“Indra should bring those cows to cow shed” What is the historical significance of this statement? “The cows are given by the lord to those rishis who glorify them.” What does it mean? Why are the vishwa devathas the protector of cows? One has to get the proper explanation or else the suktas will be wrongly understood. Just because, one doesn’t undertand these esoteric verse, to call it meaningless is foolish. To say that the foolish Rishis and munis wrote these verses out of exaggeration somehow or other they wanted to protect cows, that is what is indicated here?
These explanations are a farce and its important to understand the suktas. As we have explained earlier: “go” means light, not external light. For rishis to light up their internal light (should it be effulgence) and for the nourishment of such light, these prayers have appeared. The light Agni, Soma, Prajapatim Vishwadevatha they have a relationship.
If someone is sitting in dark and if there is light it is very pleasing. Similarly when there is inner darkness (deergha tamasu), rishis who are aspiring for knowledge receive the transcendental light of knowledge, it is very pleasing. Just as the cow needs grass, so also the light of transcendental knowledge also needs grass and water. Without nourishment jnana will be dead. Rishis have called even water as “jeeva dhanya” (that which nourishes life). Also it is explained that cows are standing on their own feet (padadhvi). Why is it that this is talked about, do only cows have legs? One has to study this veda sutra to understand it. Rudra represents death (mrityu). So the prayer: “Let the light not see its end”, offered to him indicates knowledge is limitless and the desire to have that is an eternal desire. Similarly when we see external cows, they have the same colour, different or same shape or light rays that take shelter of the power of Sun god could also have different colors. The janan surya is they have taken shelter of jnana bala and have different colors, the nature of jnana is necessarily not only one, it is varieties, therefore satya or truth has diverse faucets and appears in different size and different color. As the Bhagavd Gita explains in 11th chapter “nana-varnakrtini ca” this is all explained by Agni, that is the meaning.

Cow in Vedas (वेदेषु गौः)

2017-08-21T07:31:33Z

P16232:

Cow (Sanskrit : धेनु , गौः , सुरभि , पयस्विनी) is a divine being revered and worshiped as the earthy embodiment of devatas by Hindus. Since times immemorial in Bharatavarsha, the cow has well been recognized for Her selflessness and service to humankind and thus has been worshiped with utmost reverence.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Importance of cow in the Dharmic way of life can be summarized in the following words of Vasishta || वसिष्ठमुनिः with Rishi Viswamitra || विश्वामित्रमुनिः regarding शबला, the holy cow in '''as given by Valmiki maharshi in श्रीरामायण'''<blockquote>'''''शाश्वती शबला मह्यं कीर्तिरात्मगतो यथा'''''</blockquote><blockquote>'''''अस्यां हव्यं च कव्यं च प्राणयात्रा तथैव च''' (Val. Ram Bal 53.13)''</blockquote> '''Meaning:''' Just as a person with self-respect and his fame are inseparable, so also I (Vasishta) am inseparable from Shabala. With her milk my daily activities for the gods and ancestors are conducted, so as my प्राणयात्रा (life’s journey).

Since time immemorial, in Bharatvarsha the cow is worshiped as it seen to represent selflessness and service to humankind. the sacredness of the cow is described extensively in the Vedas. Kamadhenu or the bovine-goddess, who resides in IndraLoka is described in the Shastras as the Mother of all cows. She is a miraculous provider who fulfills the desires of her owner. Kamadhenu's lineage including he daughter Nandini also feature prominently in the Nirukthas. Yaska Mahrashi explains the name ‘go’ as a part of the 21 names of ||prithvi (earth) given below

1) Om gauhu

2) Gma

3) Jnya

4) kshma

5) Ksha

6) Kshama

7) kshoni

8) kshiti
9) Avanihi
10) Urvi
11) Prithvi
12) Mahi
13) Ripah
14) Aditihi

15) Ila
16) Niryathi
17) Bhu
18) Bhumihi
19) Pushaha

20) Gathuhu

21) Gothraha

||Gothra ith yeka vimshati prthivi namadhiyani||

'''meaning:?'''

Several explanations are given by Yaska maharishi regarding the origin of the word cow/gau:

yaddurangatha bhavathi yachasyam bhutani gachati||

that means which is extensively pervasive and whence all the living entities are traveling on

||pasunamehabhavati yathasma deva||

the same thing is applicable to the specialty : the cow or the word go.

||adityopi gauruchyate sarvepi rashmayo gavauchanthi||
||अदित्योपि गौरुच्यते सर्वेऽपि रश्मयो गवौचन्थि ||

आदित्य ||Aditya () is also called gahu. Surya rash mi (the sun rays) are also called as gau or cow. The Vishnu Purana says

|| gavamsuryaha paro guruhu||

when Lord Krishna appears, Bhudevi speaks to the devatas.
This is a significant part in the commentary. Vishnu chitta, an ancient acharya explains,

||अत्रा गुरु शब्ध करनमचि||
||athra guru shabda karanamachi||

here the word guru also has the causative meaning.

|surya suthashcha gaamaha|| So he quotes samvartha shruthi vakya|| as evidence. The sun rays are the ||surya sutaschya gavah|| because surya is the cause of their rays (whose rays).

Therefore, this Sun is accepted as the ||guru and the evidence is the old nirukti, the legacy of that Nirukti is the evidence. Now who is the Sun? and who is the cow?
== Sankoshan ?? ==
The cow is called ||devaanaam mata (mother of devathas).

Why is Indra called Gospathi and why do all great maharshis like Gautama, Gavisthara have the name they have?

Also there are gavamayana such significant and symbolic yajna is there(???). This is done with cows only. This is explained in Taitreya Samhita.
There is a famous sukta in Rg Veda 10.169 called Go sukta which says that those who are hardworking and perform ||tapasya (), they would understand that these mantras are not addressing just the ordinary cows. It is not possible. Superficial also we can understand this. There is also the “kamadhenu” cow who is referred to in the Vedas in the clash between Vasishtha and Vishwamitra Muni. Is Kamadhenu an ordinary cow? Kaushika or Vishwamitra was a rich sensuality, and powerful king who had the power of Kshatra dharma (). He desired to own kamadhenu. It is important to understand why he desired Kamadhenu.

== Explanation of Go suktas ==
Let’s analyze the go sukta from the Rg veda: 10.169. There are only 4 mantras in this suktas, which addresses the cows as devatas. The mood of these verses are as follows. This sukta is addressed to Rudra deva says,
“Let the wind blow pleasingly towards the cows and let the cows enjoy the nourishing milk and the nice grass. Let them drink water which is pleasing and makes life satisfying. This cow which is providing “Jiva dhanya” (life-sustaining grains) to us, let such cows be satisfied as they stand on their own feet.”

Agnidev understands those cows who have got similar forms or different kinds of form or same size. He understands this by yoga. The rishis of Angirasa kula, the great ||tapasvis () have created the cows. These cows are beneficial to the cause of yajna. Let such cows be given unlimited satisfaction by the ||Parjanya (God of rain). The cows offer themselves to those devatas who are qualified to perform the yajna. Only Soma deva understands their entire form.
“Hey Indradeva, please bring them to our cow shed, the cows which are full of milk and one who are always giving children. The paramatama who is the creator has given this cow to me to whom all the glorification is made by me. After the ||pitris () and ||pitridevas () being permitted, let these auspicious cows on their own, let them be tied in cow shed, only because of (go-santan) the family of cows, lets become happy and prosperous”
If one see the above suktas only from the historic perspective, what would one see? It would be only the fake concept of the aryas who came from some foreign land looking for food and waer for their people and their cows sake. Apasrt from being shallow story this is a concocted story of the Western self-styled historians. The superficial explanation form this perspective seems only a prayer made for cows. It seems incoherent, for eg: if the prayers are only for saying that let the cows eat grass, let them drink water, why would Vedas need such a sukta for it? Why would somebody need the blessings of rudra? What does it mean that Angiras is responsible for creating cows? What is the history behind this? Cows having many forms or similar shape can be accepted externally and at the same time Agni alone knows all their names. What is the underlying meaning of this sukta? Also what is the meaning of ‘cows alone offer their life to the devatas?’ Why only some are able to understand this secret?
“Indra should bring those cows to cow shed” What is the historical significance of this statement? “The cows are given by the lord to those rishis who glorify them.” What does it mean? Why are the vishwa devathas the protector of cows? One has to get the proper explanation or else the suktas will be wrongly understood. Just because, one doesn’t undertand these esoteric verse, to call it meaningless is foolish. To say that the foolish Rishis and munis wrote these verses out of exaggeration somehow or other they wanted to protect cows, that is what is indicated here?
These explanations are a farce and its important to understand the suktas. As we have explained earlier: “go” means light, not external light. For rishis to light up their internal light (should it be effulgence) and for the nourishment of such light, these prayers have appeared. The light Agni, Soma, Prajapatim Vishwadevatha they have a relationship.
If someone is sitting in dark and if there is light it is very pleasing. Similarly when there is inner darkness (deergha tamasu), rishis who are aspiring for knowledge receive the transcendental light of knowledge, it is very pleasing. Just as the cow needs grass, so also the light of transcendental knowledge also needs grass and water. Without nourishment jnana will be dead. Rishis have called even water as “jeeva dhanya” (that which nourishes life). Also it is explained that cows are standing on their own feet (padadhvi). Why is it that this is talked about, do only cows have legs? One has to study this veda sutra to understand it. Rudra represents death (mrityu). So the prayer: “Let the light not see its end”, offered to him indicates knowledge is limitless and the desire to have that is an eternal desire. Similarly when we see external cows, they have the same colour, different or same shape or light rays that take shelter of the power of Sun god could also have different colors. The janan surya is they have taken shelter of jnana bala and have different colors, the nature of jnana is necessarily not only one, it is varieties, therefore satya or truth has diverse faucets and appears in different size and different color. As the Bhagavd Gita explains in 11th chapter “nana-varnakrtini ca” this is all explained by Agni, that is the meaning.

Cow in Vedas (वेदेषु गौः)

2017-08-21T07:12:48Z

P16232:

Cow (Sanskrit : धेनु , गौः , सुरभि , पयस्विनी) is a divine being revered and worshiped as the earthy embodiment of devatas by Hindus. Since times immemorial in Bharatavarsha, the cow has well been recognized for Her selflessness and service to humankind and thus has been worshiped with utmost reverence.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Importance of cow in the Dharmic way of life can be summarized in the following words of Vasishta || वसिष्ठमुनिः with Rishi Viswamitra || विश्वामित्रमुनिः regarding शबला, the holy cow in '''as given by Valmiki maharshi in श्रीरामायण'''<blockquote>'''''शाश्वती शबला मह्यं कीर्तिरात्मगतो यथा'''''</blockquote><blockquote>'''''अस्यां हव्यं च कव्यं च प्राणयात्रा तथैव च''' (Val. Ram Bal 53.13)''</blockquote> '''Meaning:''' Just as a person with self-respect and his fame are inseparable, so also I (Vasishta) am inseparable from Shabala. With her milk my daily activities for the gods and ancestors are conducted, so as my प्राणयात्रा (life’s journey).

Since time immemorial, in Bharatvarsha the cow is worshiped as it seen to represent selflessness and service to humankind. the sacredness of the cow is described extensively in the Vedas. Kamadhenu or the bovine-goddess, who resides in IndraLoka is described in the Shastras as the Mother of all cows. She is a miraculous provider who fulfills the desires of her owner. Kamadhenu's lineage including he daughter Nandini also feature prominently in the Nirukthas. Yaska Mahrashi explains the name ‘go’ as a part of the 21 names of ||prithvi (earth) given below

1) Om gauhu

2) Gma

3) Jnya

4) kshma
5) Ksha
6) Kshama
7) kshoni
8) kshiti
9) Avanihi
10) Urvi
11) Prithvi
12) Mahi
13) Ripah
14) Aditihi
15) Ila
16) Niryathi
17) Bhu
18) Bhumihi
19) Pushaha

20) Gathuhu

21) Gothraha

||Gothra ith yeka vimshati prthivi namadhiyani||

'''meaning:?'''

Several explanations are given by Yaska maharishi regarding the origin of the word cow/gau:

yaddurangatha bhavathi yachasyam bhutani gachati||

that means which is extensively pervasive and whence all the living entities are traveling on

||pasunamehabhavati yathasma deva||

the same thing is applicable to the specialty : the cow or the word go.

||adityopi gauruchyate sarvepi rashmayo gavauchanthi||
||अदित्योपि गौरुच्यते सर्वेऽपि रश्मयो गवौचन्थि ||

आदित्य ||Aditya () is also called gahu. Surya rash mi (the sun rays) are also called as gau or cow. The Vishnu Purana says

|| gavamsuryaha paro guruhu||

when Lord Krishna appears, Bhudevi speaks to the devatas.
This is a significant part in the commentary. Vishnu chitta, an ancient acharya explains,

||अत्रा गुरु शब्ध करनमचि||
||athra guru shabda karanamachi||

here the word guru also has the causative meaning.

|surya suthashcha gaamaha|| So he quotes samvartha shruthi vakya|| as evidence. The sun rays are the ||surya sutaschya gavah|| because surya is the cause of their rays (whose rays).

Therefore, this Sun is accepted as the ||guru and the evidence is the old nirukti, the legacy of that Nirukti is the evidence. Now who is the Sun? and who is the cow?
== Sankoshan ==
The cow is called ||devaanaam mata (mother of devathas). Why is Indra called Gospathi and why do all great maharshis like Gautama, Gavisthara have the name they have? Also there are gavamayana such significant and symbolic yajna is there(???). This is done with cows only. This is explained in Taitreya Samhita.
There is a famous sukta in Rg Veda 10.169 called Go sukta which says that those who are hardworking and perform ||tapasya (), they would understand that these mantras are not addressing just the ordinary cows. It is not possible. Superficial also we can understand this. There is also the “kamadhenu” cow who is referred to in the Vedas in the clash between Vasishtha and Vishwamitra Muni. Is Kamadhenu an ordinary cow? Kaushika or Vishwamitra was a rich sensuality, and powerful king who had the power of Kshatra dharma (). He desired to own kamadhenu. It is important to understand why he desired Kamadhenu.

== Explanation of Go suktas ==
Let’s analyze the go sukta from the Rg veda: 10.169. There are only 4 mantras in this suktas, which addresses the cows as devatas. The mood of these verses are as follows. This sukta is addressed to Rudra deva says,
“Let the wind blow pleasingly towards the cows and let the cows enjoy the nourishing milk and the nice grass. Let them drink water which is pleasing and makes life satisfying. This cow which is providing “Jiva dhanya” (life-sustaining grains) to us, let such cows be satisfied as they stand on their own feet.”

Agnidev understands those cows who have got similar forms or different kinds of form or same size. He understands this by yoga. The rishis of Angirasa kula, the great ||tapasvis () have created the cows. These cows are beneficial to the cause of yajna. Let such cows be given unlimited satisfaction by the ||Parjanya (God of rain). The cows offer themselves to those devatas who are qualified to perform the yajna. Only Soma deva understands their entire form.
“Hey Indradeva, please bring them to our cow shed, the cows which are full of milk and one who are always giving children. The paramatama who is the creator has given this cow to me to whom all the glorification is made by me. After the ||pitris () and ||pitridevas () being permitted, let these auspicious cows on their own, let them be tied in cow shed, only because of (go-santan) the family of cows, lets become happy and prosperous”
If one see the above suktas only from the historic perspective, what would one see? It would be only the fake concept of the aryas who came from some foreign land looking for food and waer for their people and their cows sake. Apasrt from being shallow story this is a concocted story of the Western self-styled historians. The superficial explanation form this perspective seems only a prayer made for cows. It seems incoherent, for eg: if the prayers are only for saying that let the cows eat grass, let them drink water, why would Vedas need such a sukta for it? Why would somebody need the blessings of rudra? What does it mean that Angiras is responsible for creating cows? What is the history behind this? Cows having many forms or similar shape can be accepted externally and at the same time Agni alone knows all their names. What is the underlying meaning of this sukta? Also what is the meaning of ‘cows alone offer their life to the devatas?’ Why only some are able to understand this secret?
“Indra should bring those cows to cow shed” What is the historical significance of this statement? “The cows are given by the lord to those rishis who glorify them.” What does it mean? Why are the vishwa devathas the protector of cows? One has to get the proper explanation or else the suktas will be wrongly understood. Just because, one doesn’t undertand these esoteric verse, to call it meaningless is foolish. To say that the foolish Rishis and munis wrote these verses out of exaggeration somehow or other they wanted to protect cows, that is what is indicated here?
These explanations are a farce and its important to understand the suktas. As we have explained earlier: “go” means light, not external light. For rishis to light up their internal light (should it be effulgence) and for the nourishment of such light, these prayers have appeared. The light Agni, Soma, Prajapatim Vishwadevatha they have a relationship.
If someone is sitting in dark and if there is light it is very pleasing. Similarly when there is inner darkness (deergha tamasu), rishis who are aspiring for knowledge receive the transcendental light of knowledge, it is very pleasing. Just as the cow needs grass, so also the light of transcendental knowledge also needs grass and water. Without nourishment jnana will be dead. Rishis have called even water as “jeeva dhanya” (that which nourishes life). Also it is explained that cows are standing on their own feet (padadhvi). Why is it that this is talked about, do only cows have legs? One has to study this veda sutra to understand it. Rudra represents death (mrityu). So the prayer: “Let the light not see its end”, offered to him indicates knowledge is limitless and the desire to have that is an eternal desire. Similarly when we see external cows, they have the same colour, different or same shape or light rays that take shelter of the power of Sun god could also have different colors. The janan surya is they have taken shelter of jnana bala and have different colors, the nature of jnana is necessarily not only one, it is varieties, therefore satya or truth has diverse faucets and appears in different size and different color. As the Bhagavd Gita explains in 11th chapter “nana-varnakrtini ca” this is all explained by Agni, that is the meaning.

Cow in Vedas (वेदेषु गौः)

2017-08-21T06:25:24Z

P16232:

Cow (Sanskrit : धेनु , गौः , सुरभि , पयस्विनी) is a divine being revered and worshiped as the earthy embodiment of devatas by Hindus. Since times immemorial in Bharatavarsha, the cow has well been recognized for Her selflessness and service to humankind and thus has been worshiped with utmost reverence.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
Importance of cow in the Dharmic way of life can be summarized in the following words of Vasishta || वसिष्ठमुनिः with Viswamitra || विश्वामित्रमुनिः rushi regarding शबला, the holy cow in '''as given by Valmiki maharshi in श्रीरामायण'''<blockquote>'''''शाश्वती शबला मह्यं कीर्तिरात्मगतो यथा'''''</blockquote><blockquote>'''''अस्यां हव्यं च कव्यं च प्राणयात्रा तथैव च''' (Val. Ram Bal 53.13)''</blockquote> '''Meaning:''' Just as a person with self-respect and his fame are inseparable, so also I (Vasishta) am inseparable from Shabala. With her milk my daily activities for the gods and ancestors are conducted, so as my प्राणयात्रा (life’s journey).

The Cow represents selflessness and service to humankind. Since time immemorial, in Bharatvarsha the cow is worshiped. Vedas extensively describe the cows and their piousness with great sanctity.

Kamadhenu or the bovine-goddess is described in Hinduism as the Mother of all cows, with her place of residence in Indra loka. She is a miraculous provider to her owner or the wish-fulfilling being producing whatever he desires. Kamadhenu's lineage including daughter Nandini also feature prominently in the

Cow in the Nirukthas: Yaska Mahrashi explains the name ‘go’ is the part of the 21 names of ||prithvi (earth) given below
1) Om gauhu
2) Gma
3) Jnya
4) kshma
5) Ksha
6) Kshama
7) kshoni
8) kshiti
9) Avanihi
10) Urvi
11) Prithvi
12) Mahi
13) Ripah
14) Aditihi
15) Ila
16) Niryathi
17) Bhu
18) Bhumihi
19) Pushaha
20) Gathuhu
21)

Gothraha

||Gothra ith yeka vimshati prthivi namadhiyani||

meaning:?

Several explanations are given by Yaska maharishi regarding the origin of the word cow/gau:

yaddurangatha bhavathi yachasyam bhutani gachati||

that means which is extensively pervasive and whence all the living entities are traveling on

||pasunamehabhavati yathasma deva||

the same thing is applicable to the specialty : the cow or the word go.

||adityopi gauruchyate sarvepi rashmayo gavauchanthi||
||अदित्योपि गौरुच्यते सर्वेऽपि रश्मयो गवौचन्थि ||

आदित्य ||Aditya () is also called gahu. Surya rash mi (the sun rays) are also called as gau or cow. The Vishnu Purana says

|| gavamsuryaha paro guruhu||

when Lord Krishna appears, Bhudevi speaks to the devatas.
This is a significant part in the commentary. Vishnu chitta, an ancient acharya explains,

||अत्रा गुरु शब्ध करनमचि||
||athra guru shabda karanamachi||

here the word guru also has the causative meaning.

|surya suthashcha gaamaha|| So he quotes samvartha shruthi vakya|| as evidence. The sun rays are the ||surya sutaschya gavah|| because surya is the cause of their rays (whose rays).

Therefore, this Sun is accepted as the ||guru and the evidence is the old nirukti, the legacy of that Nirukti is the evidence. Now who is the Sun? and who is the cow?
== Sankoshan ==
The cow is called ||devaanaam mata (mother of devathas). Why is Indra called Gospathi and why do all great maharshis like Gautama, Gavisthara have the name they have? Also there are gavamayana such significant and symbolic yajna is there(???). This is done with cows only. This is explained in Taitreya Samhita.
There is a famous sukta in Rg Veda 10.169 called Go sukta which says that those who are hardworking and perform ||tapasya (), they would understand that these mantras are not addressing just the ordinary cows. It is not possible. Superficial also we can understand this. There is also the “kamadhenu” cow who is referred to in the Vedas in the clash between Vasishtha and Vishwamitra Muni. Is Kamadhenu an ordinary cow? Kaushika or Vishwamitra was a rich sensuality, and powerful king who had the power of Kshatra dharma (). He desired to own kamadhenu. It is important to understand why he desired Kamadhenu.

== Explanation of Go suktas ==
Let’s analyze the go sukta from the Rg veda: 10.169. There are only 4 mantras in this suktas, which addresses the cows as devatas. The mood of these verses are as follows. This sukta is addressed to Rudra deva says,
“Let the wind blow pleasingly towards the cows and let the cows enjoy the nourishing milk and the nice grass. Let them drink water which is pleasing and makes life satisfying. This cow which is providing “Jiva dhanya” (life-sustaining grains) to us, let such cows be satisfied as they stand on their own feet.”

Agnidev understands those cows who have got similar forms or different kinds of form or same size. He understands this by yoga. The rishis of Angirasa kula, the great ||tapasvis () have created the cows. These cows are beneficial to the cause of yajna. Let such cows be given unlimited satisfaction by the ||Parjanya (God of rain). The cows offer themselves to those devatas who are qualified to perform the yajna. Only Soma deva understands their entire form.
“Hey Indradeva, please bring them to our cow shed, the cows which are full of milk and one who are always giving children. The paramatama who is the creator has given this cow to me to whom all the glorification is made by me. After the ||pitris () and ||pitridevas () being permitted, let these auspicious cows on their own, let them be tied in cow shed, only because of (go-santan) the family of cows, lets become happy and prosperous”
If one see the above suktas only from the historic perspective, what would one see? It would be only the fake concept of the aryas who came from some foreign land looking for food and waer for their people and their cows sake. Apasrt from being shallow story this is a concocted story of the Western self-styled historians. The superficial explanation form this perspective seems only a prayer made for cows. It seems incoherent, for eg: if the prayers are only for saying that let the cows eat grass, let them drink water, why would Vedas need such a sukta for it? Why would somebody need the blessings of rudra? What does it mean that Angiras is responsible for creating cows? What is the history behind this? Cows having many forms or similar shape can be accepted externally and at the same time Agni alone knows all their names. What is the underlying meaning of this sukta? Also what is the meaning of ‘cows alone offer their life to the devatas?’ Why only some are able to understand this secret?
“Indra should bring those cows to cow shed” What is the historical significance of this statement? “The cows are given by the lord to those rishis who glorify them.” What does it mean? Why are the vishwa devathas the protector of cows? One has to get the proper explanation or else the suktas will be wrongly understood. Just because, one doesn’t undertand these esoteric verse, to call it meaningless is foolish. To say that the foolish Rishis and munis wrote these verses out of exaggeration somehow or other they wanted to protect cows, that is what is indicated here?
These explanations are a farce and its important to understand the suktas. As we have explained earlier: “go” means light, not external light. For rishis to light up their internal light (should it be effulgence) and for the nourishment of such light, these prayers have appeared. The light Agni, Soma, Prajapatim Vishwadevatha they have a relationship.
If someone is sitting in dark and if there is light it is very pleasing. Similarly when there is inner darkness (deergha tamasu), rishis who are aspiring for knowledge receive the transcendental light of knowledge, it is very pleasing. Just as the cow needs grass, so also the light of transcendental knowledge also needs grass and water. Without nourishment jnana will be dead. Rishis have called even water as “jeeva dhanya” (that which nourishes life). Also it is explained that cows are standing on their own feet (padadhvi). Why is it that this is talked about, do only cows have legs? One has to study this veda sutra to understand it. Rudra represents death (mrityu). So the prayer: “Let the light not see its end”, offered to him indicates knowledge is limitless and the desire to have that is an eternal desire. Similarly when we see external cows, they have the same colour, different or same shape or light rays that take shelter of the power of Sun god could also have different colors. The janan surya is they have taken shelter of jnana bala and have different colors, the nature of jnana is necessarily not only one, it is varieties, therefore satya or truth has diverse faucets and appears in different size and different color. As the Bhagavd Gita explains in 11th chapter “nana-varnakrtini ca” this is all explained by Agni, that is the meaning.

Sanat Kumaras (सनत्कुमाराः)

2017-08-18T09:44:37Z

P16232:

The '''Kumaras''' are the four rishis, who are eternally in the form of children, named as Sanaka, Sanatana, Sanandana and Sanatkumara. Many upanishads and puranas give a detailed account of the legends around these four rishis. The group is known by various names: "Kumaras" (the boys/male children/young boys), "Chatursana" or "Chatuh sana" (the four with names starting with Sana) and "Sanakadi" (Sanaka and the others).[6] Individual names usually include Sanaka (ancient), Sanatana (eternal), Sanandana (joyful) and Sanatkumara (Ever Young). Sometimes, Sanatana is replaced by Sanatsujata.

== परिचय || Introduction ==
They are described as the first mind-born creations and sons of the creator-god Brahma. Born from Brahma's mind, the four Kumaras undertook lifelong vows of celibacy (brahmacharya) against the wishes of their father. They are said to wander throughout the materialistic and spiritualistic universe without any desire but with purpose to teach. All four brothers are enlightened with Vedic knowledge and always travel together.

The ''Bhagavata Purana'' lists the Kumaras among the twelve ''Mahajanas'' (great devotees or bhaktas) who although being eternally liberated souls from birth, still became attracted to the devotional service of Vishnu from their already enlightened state. It also mentions them as being an avatar of Vishnu.[5] They play a significant role in a number of spiritual traditions, especially those associated with the worship of Vishnu and his avatar Krishna, sometimes even in traditions related to the god Shiva.

'''A fifth Kumara named Ribhu is sometimes added. Sometimes, the Kumaras are enumerated as six with Sana and Ribhu or Sanatsujata added.'''

== Birth and Purpose ==
The four Kumaras are the eldest sons of the creator-god Brahma.[8] When Brahma undertook the task of creation of the universe, he first created some beings from different parts of his body to aid him. The Kumaras was the first such beings. They were created from his mind and appeared as infants. Brahma ordered them to aid in creation, but as manifestations of Sattva (purity), and uninterested in worldly life, they refused and instead devoted themselves to God and celibacy, against the wishes of their father.[6][8] The ''Bhagavata Purana'' narrates further that their refusal made Brahma angry and his wrath manifested into the god Rudra, also known as Lord Shiva.[1] As per a variant, Brahma practised austerities (''tapas'') and pleased the Supreme God Vishnu, so he appeared in the form of the four infant Kumaras as Brahma's sons.[8] Some texts like the ''Devi Bhagavata Purana'' and the''Bhavishya Purana'' narrates the four Kumaras appeared even before the Brahma of the present age. (In a cycle of time, some texts say that a Brahma dies and is reborn.)[6]

The four Kumaras learnt the ''Veda''s at the age of four or five.[8] They thus became great ''jnani''s (learned beings), yogis and ''Siddha''s (the perfect enlightened ones). The Kumaras remained in form of children due to their spiritual virtues. The age of the sages varies in various sacred texts. While five is the most popular, they are also mentioned as being fifteen- or sixteen-year-old youths.[9] They practised the vow of renunciation (''Sannyasa'') and celibacy (brahmacharya) and remained naked.They wander together throughout the materialistic and spiritualistic universe without any desire but with purpose to teach.[1][6][8]

The four Kumaras are said to reside in ''Jana Loka'' or ''Janar loka'' (loka or world of the intellectuals in the present parlance) or in Vishnu's abodeVaikuntha.[8][11] They constantly recite the mantra ''Hari sharanam'' (Vishnu – "God the Redeemer our Refuge") or sing Vishnu's praises. These hymns and glories of Vishnu serve as their only food.[8] Another son of Brahma, the sage Narada, who is described as their disciple, extolls their virtues in the ''Padma Purana''. Narada says though they appear as five-year-old children, they are the great ancestors of the world.[8]

== Discourses ==
The discourses of the four Kumaras are found in the dharmic epic ''Mahabharata'' as well as the ''Bhagavata Purana''.[8]

The '''''Shanti Parva''''' '''of the ''Mahabharata''''' describes the discourse given by the four Kumaras to the demon king Vritra and his guru – the sage Shukra. The king and his guru worship the Kumaras and then Shukra asks them to describe the greatness of Vishnu. Sanat-kumara starts with describing Vishnu as the creator and destroyer of all beings. He equates Vishnu's body parts with parts of the universe and the elements, for example the earth is Vishnu's feet and water is his tongue. All gods are describes as being Vishnu. Then Sanatkumara categories all beings into six colours depending upon the proportion of the three gunas: Sattva (pure), Rajas(dim) and Tamas (dark). From the lowest to the foremost beings, the colours are dark (Tamas is high, Rajas is mid, Sattva is low), tawny (Tamas is high, Sattva is mid, Rajas is low), blue (Rajas is high, Tamas is mid, Sattva is low), red (Rajas is high, Sattva is mid, Tamas is low), yellow (Sattva is high, Tamas is mid, Rajas is low) and white (Sattva is high, Rajas is mid, Tamas is low). (The ''Vishnu Purana'' gives non-living things, lower animals and birds, humans, Prajapatis, gods and the Kumaras are respective examples of the above colours.) Sanat-kumara elaborates further how a Jiva (living entity) journeys from dark to white in his various births, ultimately gaining moksha if he does good deeds, devotion and yoga.[12][13]

The '''''Bhagavata Purana''''' narrates the visit of the four Kumaras to the court of King Prithu, the first sovereign in mythology and an avatar of Vishnu. The king worships the sages and asked them about the way of emancipation (moksha) that can be followed by all people who caught in the web of worldly things. Sanat-kumara tells the king that Vishnu is the refuge to all and grants liberation of the cycle of births and rebirths. His worship frees one from material desires and lust. One should be freed from material objects, lives a simple life of non-violence and devotion of Vishnu and follows the teachings of a good guru and undergo Self-realization. One should realize that all living things are forms of God. Without devotion and knowledge, humans are incomplete. Out of four ''purushartha''s ("goals of life"), only moksha is eternal, while religious duty, wealth and pleasure decay with this life. While all beings are subject to destruction, the soul and God in our bodies is eternal. So it is paramount that you surrender to God (as Vishnu or Krishna), said Sanat-kumara ending his council. Prithu worships the Kumaras again, who blessed him.[14]

The first section or '''''Purvabhaga''''' '''of ''Naradiya Purana''''', an upapurana has 4 ''pada''s or sections, each told by the four Kumaras respectively to Narada.[15]Brahma, who had received the knowledge of the Puranas from Vishnu, imbibed this to his Four Kumaras, who then taught the Puranas to Narada. Narada transmitted it to Vyasa, who scripted them into the Puranic texts. The ''Vishnu Purana'' is recorded in two parts, the Vishnu Purana and Naradiya Purana. The teachings of Sanaka of the Kumara brothers are contained in the Naradiya Purana which is also divivided in two parts, the first part containing the teachings of Sanaka and others.[16]

== Wanderers ==
The four Kumaras roamed around at their free will with their cosmic powers all over the universe. During one of their sojourns, they arrived at Vaikuntha, the abode of Vishnu. The city, with the residence of Vishnu located at the center of seven circular walls, is considered as a place of bliss and purity. It has seven gates of entry. The four Kumaras passed through the first six gates without any hindrance. The seventh gate was guarded by Jaya and Vijaya, the two dvarapalas(door-guards) of Vishnu's palace. The angry guardians stopped the four Kumaras and laughed at them since they looked like children and were also naked, and did not permit them to enter through the seventh gate. The four Kumaras were perplexed by the behaviour of the gatekeepers as they had not faced such a situation and ridicule anywhere else. They expected Jaya and Vijaya to be like their master Vishnu, who does not differentiate among beings. Enraged, the Kumaras cursed them to be born on earth thrice, as three villains with characteristics of "lust, anger and greed". The gatekeepers accept the curse and bow to the Kumaras and beg for their forgiveness. Lord Vishnu who learnt of the incident, appeared before the Kumaras in all his glory with his retinue. The four Kumaras, who were on their first visit to Vaikuntha, took in by the sight and the glittering divine figure of Vishnu. With deep devotion, they appealed to him to accept them as his devotees and allow them to offer worship at his feet for all time to come and let his feet be their final emancipation. Vishnu complied with their request and also assured Jaya and Vijaya that they will born as demons on earth but will be released from all births (killed) by an avatar of Vishnu. The two guards were dismissed by Vishnu to go and suffer the curse of the Kumaras on earth and then only return to his abode, after the end of the curse. The two banished guards were then born on earth, at an inauspicious hour, to the sage Kashyapa and his wife Diti as asuraswho were named Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha.[2][17]

== In Shiva traditions ==
Shiva had assumed the form of Dakshinamurti, the great teacher and meditating facing South observing a vow of silence. The four Kumaras approached Shiva for self-realization. He taught them about the Supreme reality – Brahman by making ''chin mudra'' gesture with his hand. The index finger is touched to the thumb, indicating the union of Brahman and jiva. Thus, Shiva made the Kumaras as his disciples.[18]

The ''Linga Purana'' describes that Shiva or his aspect Vamadeva will be born as a Kumara and then multiply into the four Kumaras in each kalpa (aeon) as sons of Brahma of that kalpa. In the 29th Kalpa, Swetha Lohita is the main Kumara; where they are named as Sananda, Nandana, Vishwananda and Upananadana of white colour; then in the 30th Kalpa, they are named as Virajas, Vivahu, Visoka and Vishwbhavana, all of red colour; and in the 31st Kalpa in yellow colour; and in the 32nd Kalpa, as of black colour.[7]

The four sages Sanak,Sanandan,Sanatan,Sanat were learned Brahmins. They were the sons of Lord Brahma. They were very proud of their father, Brahma because he was the creator of the holy books, Vedas. They were aware of three Vedas,- Rigved, Yajurved, and Samveda and considered that the whole knowledge is complete in these three books.On the other hand, Sage Atharva approached Lord Shiva to get approval of his knowledge which he gathered from the universe using his divine powers. Lord Shiva, impressed by his creation and blessed Sage Atharva that his book of knowledge would constitute the list of Vedas and will be called as ‘Atharvaveda’. When this news reached the sons of Lord Brahma, they protested as according to them the other three Vedas was a complete set of knowledge and there was no need of fourth Veda. They argued with Lord Shiva and challenged his authority to certify a fourth Veda. Finally it was decided that whether to certify a fourth Veda or not depends upon the result learned debate. Goddess Saraswati was appointed as judge. The four Sages fired too much and too complicated questions to Lord Shiva and they were very confident of their victory as they underestimated Lord Shiva. But Shiva, who is the Lord of all the supreme knowledge, answered each and every question. The Sages accept their defeat gracefully and ask for forgiveness. Since then Artharva Veda was added to the list of Vedas, making the total four. The Sages went to their brother Prajapati Daksha who was bitter rival of Lord Shiva. On listening about the defeat of his four brothers, he cursed them to be small children. After that the four sages turned into small children. Since the sages were very learned, they thanked their brother for the curse because after becoming children their urge for learning would be greater.

== Other legends[edit] ==
An incident about the meeting of the four Kumaras with Vishnu's avatar Rama is narrated in the ''Uttarakanda'' of the ''Ramcharitmanas''. The Kumaras once stayed in the hermitage of the sage Agastya, who told them about the glory of Rama. So to meet Rama, they went to a forest grove where Rama with his brothers and disciple Hanuman had come. Rama and his brothers were so pleased with meeting the four enlightened sages that they paid obeisance to them. The sages were wonder struck looking at the divinity of Rama that they prostrated before him and out of great ecstasy started shedding tears of happiness. Rama looking at the sages was deeply impressed and asked them to be seated and praised them for their great achievements and their erudite knowledge of the Vedas and Puranas. The four Kumaras were also delighted to hear the words of praise showered on them by Rama. They in turn extolled his great virtues in a hymn.[19]

== In Nimbarka sampradaya ==
Vaishnavism (the sect that worships Vishnu as the Supreme) is divided into four ''sampradaya''s or traditions. Each of them traces its lineage to a heavenly being. The Nimbarka Sampradaya, also known as the Kumara Sampradaya, Catuḥ Sana Sampradaya and Sanakadi Sampradaya, and its philosophy Dvaitadvaita ("duality in unity") is believed to be propagated in humanity by the four Kumaras. The swan avatar of Vishnu Hamsa was the origin of this philosophy and taught it to the four Kumaras, who in turn taught Narada, who finally passed it to the earthy Nimbarka, the main exponent of the sampradaya.[20]

== References ==